what is travel comp time

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Overtime, Comp Time, and Credit Hours

This Handbook page provides a brief overview of overtime, comp time, and credit hours.

There are several factors which affect how you could be compensated for working extra hours. One is your salary: if your salary is at - or close to - the maximum GS salary ($183,500 in FY23). Another factor is whether you are an , external, exempt or non-exempt employee .

You should obtain supervisor approval prior to working extra hours. And, your supervisor should understand your specific situation prior to approving overtime.

The guidance below is only a high level overview. You and/or your supervisor can reach out to PeopleOps anytime with questions about your specific situation.

Overtime and Comp Time

Overtime and comp time can be approved by your supervisor no matter what type of work schedule you have.

Overtime is when you are paid for extra hours that you work, whereas comp time is when you receive hours of leave instead of pay. To determine the maximum number of comp time hours that you can accrue per pay period, please use the , external, TTS-only, Bi-weekly Comp Time Cap Calculator .

You should use your accrued comp time before using Annual Leave. However, if the end of the leave year is approaching, your supervisor can approve your Annual Leave requests first if you are in danger of losing Annual Leave because of “ Use or Lose .”

Comp time expires one year (26 pay periods) after it is earned. When you reach the expiration date, you will forfeit the leave. If you leave GSA, your comp time will be paid out.

Credit Hours

Note: Credit hours are only available if you are on a flexible work schedule .

You can be approved for credit hours if you want to voluntarily work additional hours to your normal/approved schedule. If you are required to work additional hours, you will receive overtime or comp time.

• You can have up to 24 credit hours accrued, at any given time.
• The hours will rollover from one pay period to the next, and they never expire.
• Credit hours cannot be converted to cash, unless you leave GSA (then they will be paid out).

Credit hours example

You are on a Gliding schedule , and you work 8 hours every day. You are not required to stay late, but if you are in a productive headspace and want to work an extra hour to finish work, you can ask your supervisor about working 1 more hour, therefore receiving 1 credit hour. You will need to request the 1 hour in HR Links, and your supervisor will need to approve it.

Religious comp time

You can request an adjustment to your work schedule for religious observances, instead of taking leave. Document your request to your supervisor, via email, in advance of the time you’ll need to miss, along with the schedule of the time you will work outside of normal hours to compensate.

Note: religious comp time does not follow the salary cap rules that are outlined in the beginning of this document. Anyone can request religious comp time, regardless of their salary and what type of work schedule they are on.

Travel comp time

When you travel in connection to TTS, the time you spend traveling may be regular time, overtime, or travel comp time, depending on when the travel occurs.

You’ll complete overtime and comp time requests after you travel because you may encounter delays. Keep a copy of your travel itinerary to help you remember your trip.

Refer to the , external, TTS-only, Compensation for Government Travel slidedeck to determine the breakdown of your hours. This slidedeck is only open to GSA employees. Please contact your Timekeeper or an HR Specialist at your agency with questions.

Note: travel comp time does not follow the salary cap rules that are outlined in the beginning of this document. Anyone can request travel comp time, regardless of their salary and what type of work schedule they are on.

If you leave GSA, any unused travel comp time will be forfeited.

Entering the overtime, comp time, and/or credit hours you will be working into HRLinks

Entering your hours is a two step process.

Step 1 - Submit a time request in HRLinks

You need to enter your overtime, comp time, or credit hours into HRLinks. To determine the maximum number of comp time hours that you can accrue per pay period, please use the , external, TTS-only, Bi-weekly Comp Time Cap Calculator . Your supervisor will be notified to approve the hours requested.

• Click on the Employee Time Requests tile
• Select Additional Time Requests
• For Overtime , you will need to select a reason you worked overtime.
• Select Additional Time Type
• Enter Start Date and End Date
• Enter Requested Hours
• Enter Comments
• Click Submit

You’ll receive emails after submitting the request, and after it is approved. There is a , external, TTS-only, step-by-step guide to submitting time requests .

Step 2 - Update your timesheet

Currently, HR Links is not connecting Comp/Credit/Overtime hours to your timesheet. This means you will need to manually add the hours you earned to your timesheet on the day(s) when you earned them. You’ll do this after your supervisor has approved the hours in step 1.

There is a , external, TTS-only, step-by-step guide on adding the hours to your timesheet . Reach out to , external, TTS-only, #people-ops if you need assistance.

Using the comp time and/or credit hours you’ve earned

You will submit a leave request , just like you do for other types of leave. When searching in HR Links for the leave type to request, the codes and leave names are:

• 041 - Comp Time Used
• 037 - Credit Hours Used
• 047 - Religious Comp Time Used
• 043 - Travel Comp Time Used

OPM Resources

• , external, Adjustment of Work Schedules for Religious Observances
• , external, Overtime Fact Sheet
• , external, Comp Time Fact Sheet
• , external, Credit Hours Fact Sheet

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Travel Time

Time spent traveling during normal work hours is considered compensable work time. Time spent in home-to-work travel by an employee in an employer-provided vehicle, or in activities performed by an employee that are incidental to the use of the vehicle for commuting, generally is not "hours worked" and, therefore, does not have to be paid. This provision applies only if the travel is within the normal commuting area for the employer's business and the use of the vehicle is subject to an agreement between the employer and the employee or the employee's representative.

Webpages on this Topic

Handy Reference Guide to the Fair Labor Standards Act - Answers many questions about the FLSA and gives information about certain occupations that are exempt from the Act.

Coverage Under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) Fact Sheet - General information about who is covered by the FLSA.

Wage and Hour Division: District Office Locations - Addresses and phone numbers for Department of Labor district Wage and Hour Division offices.

State Labor Offices/State Laws - Links to state departments of labor contacts. Individual states' laws and regulations may vary greatly. Please consult your state department of labor for this information.

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Special compensatory time off for travel.

This program allows employees to accrue compensatory time off for time spent by an employee in a travel status away from the employee’s official duty station when such time is not otherwise compensable. The travel must be officially authorized for work purposes and approved by an authorized official. 

An employee as defined in Title 5 U.S.C. 5541(2), who is employed in an “Executive Agency,” as defined in 5 U.S.C. 105, ) is entitled to earn and use compensatory time off for travel regardless of whether the employee is exempt or non-exempt from the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Coverage includes employees in Senior Level (SL) and Scientific of Professional (ST) positions, Federal Wage System (or Wage Grade, WG), and commissioned (tenured) Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) and Commissioned Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO). 

Senior Executive Service members and intermittent employees (who do not have a scheduled tour of duty for leave purposes) are excluded from coverage.

Effective Dates of Coverage

Final regulations implementing compensatory time off for travel for most employees was effective May 17, 2007. Coverage for WG employees was effective April 27, 2008. Coverage for Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) and Commissioned Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) was effective June 8, 2006. 

Creditable Travel Time 

Time in a travel status includes the time the employee spends traveling between the official duty station and a temporary duty station (or the lodging in the temporary duty station) or between two temporary duty stations (or the lodging in the temporary duty station) and the “usual waiting time” that precedes or interrupts such travel. 

“Usual waiting time” is the time required to arrive at the airport (or other transportation hub) for security checks-ins, etc., prior to a designated departure time. 

Time spent at an intervening airport (or transportation hub) waiting for a connecting flight also is creditable time.

In the Department, “usual waiting time” is 2 hours for domestic travel and up to 4 hours for international travel. 

Non-Creditable Travel Time 

The following do not qualify as creditable time:

• Unusually long or extended waiting periods that occur prior to an employee’s initial departure time or between actual periods of travel if the employee is free to rest, sleep, or otherwise use the time for his/her own purposes;
• Long waiting periods that occur during an employee's regular scheduled working hours; these periods are compensable as part of the employee's regularly scheduled administrative workweek;
• Time spent traveling outside of an employee’s regular working hours to or from a transportation terminal that are within the limits of the employee’s official duty station;
• Time spent traveling in connection with the performance of union representational activities;
• Time spent traveling on a holiday or an “in-lieu-of” holiday; the employee is entitled to his or her rate of basic pay for the holiday hours; and
• Time spent at a temporary duty station between arrival and departure times; and
• Meal times. 

Once an employee arrives at the temporary duty station (i.e., TDY work site, training site, or hotel at the temporary duty station), the employee is no longer considered to be in a travel status. Any time spent at a temporary duty station between arrival and departure is not creditable for earning compensatory time off for travel. 

Offsetting Normal Commuting Time

When an employee travels directly between the home and a temporary duty station that is outside the limits of the employee's official duty station, the employee's normal “home-to-work/work-to-home” commuting time must be deducted from the creditable travel time. 

Normal commuting time must also be deducted from the creditable travel time if the employee is required to travel outside of regular working hours between the home and a transportation hub outside the limits of the employee's official duty station.

Travel between Multiple Time Zones 

When an employee’s travel involves two or more time zones, the time zone from the point of first departure must be used to determine travel status for accruing compensatory time off. For example, if an employee travels from his official duty station in Washington, DC, to a temporary duty station in Boulder, CO, the Washington, DC, time zone must be used to determine hours in a travel status. However, on the return trip to Washington, DC, the time zone from Boulder, CO, must be used to determine hours in a travel status 

Timeframes for Use

An employee must use accrued compensatory time off by the end of the 26th pay period after the pay period during which it was earned and reported on the webTA. 

All compensatory time off for travel must be used in the chronological order in which it was earned; that is, time earned first is used first. 

Forfeiture of Unused Hours

Accumulated compensatory time that is unused by the end of the 26th pay period after the pay period in which it was earned is forfeited. Unused balances are also forfeited when an employee voluntarily transfers to another agency or separates from Federal service. Forfeited hours may not be paid or restored. 

When an employee fails to use accumulated compensatory time balances within the required timeframe due to an exigency of the public service beyond the employee’s control, the time limit for using the hours may be extended for up to an additional 26 pay periods. Additional extensions are not authorized and forfeited hours may not be restored. 

Exceptions to Forfeiture of Unused Hours

Unused compensatory time off for travel must be held in abeyance for an employee who separates, or is placed in a leave without pay (LWOP) status, and later returns:

• To perform service in the uniformed services (see 38 U.S.C. § 4303 and 5 CFR § 353.102) with restoration rights; and 
• Due to an on-the-job injury with entitlement to injury compensation under 5 U.S.C. Chapter 81. 

In these cases, the employee must use all of the compensatory time off for travel held in abeyance by the end of the 26th pay period following the pay period in which he/she returns to duty, or the compensatory time off will be forfeited. 

Biweekly Salary Limitation and Aggregate Limitation on Pay

Compensatory time off for travel is not considered in applying the bi-weekly pay cap under 5 U.S.C. 5547 or the aggregate limitation on pay under 5 U.S.C.507. 

Alternate Mode of Transportation

When an employee is allowed to use an alternate mode of transportation, or travels at a time/route other than what is initially approved by the authorizing official, creditable time for travel status must be estimated. The estimate is based on the amount of time the employee would have had if the mode of transportation or the time/route initially approved by the authorizing official was used. In determining the estimated amount of creditable time for travel that an employee would have had, the employee will be credited with the lesser of the:

• Estimated time in a travel status the employee would have had if the employee had traveled at the initially approved time, or
• Employee's actual time in a travel status at a time other than that initially approved.

Applying for Compensatory Time off for Travel

Employee must officially request the earning of compensatory time prior to the actual travel or within 10 calendar days of termination of the travel. The request may be submitted via the webTA Leave and Premium Pay Request functionality, Commerce Department Form CD-81, “Authorization for Paid Overtime and/or Holiday Work, and for Compensatory Overtime”, electronic mail, or memorandum. The request should estimate the number of hours the employee expects to earn. Upon the employee’s return from travel, the employee must provide a chronological record of travel information including:

• Duration of the normal home-to-work commute;
• Time and place of departure (i.e., the employee’s home or official duty station);
• Actual time spent traveling to and from the transportation terminal if the terminal is outside of the employee’s official duty station;
• Usual waiting time; and
• Time of arrival at and departure from the temporary duty station. 

Earning Limitations 

There is no limit on the amount of compensatory time for travel that may be earned. 

Using Compensatory Time off for Travel 

Compensatory time off for travel is credited and used in 15 minute increments with the compensatory time off for travel earned first being charged first. Additional leave will be charged in corresponding units. Employees must request permission from their supervisor or leave approving official to schedule the use of accrued compensatory time off via the webTA Leave and Premium Pay Request functionality, a SF-71, Application for Leave, or Form OPM-71, Request for Leave or Approved Absence. 

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UNCLASSIFIED (U)

compensatory time off for travel

(CT:PER-1131;   05-26-2023) (Office of Origin:  GTM/OTA)

3 FAM 3171  Authorities

(CT:PER-751;   10-30-2014) (State Only) (Applies to Civil Service and Foreign Service Employees)

Authorities are authorized by the following:

·          5 U.S.C. 5550b

·          5 CFR Part 550, subpart N; and

·          The Foreign Service Act of 1980, Section 412, as amended.

3 FAM 3172  Introduction

(CT:PER-869;   08-28-2017) (State Only) (Applies to Civil Service and Foreign Service Employees)

The Federal Workforce Flexibility Act of 2004 (Public Law 108-411, Section 203, October 30, 2004) established a new form of non-monetary compensatory time off for time spent by an employee in a travel status when such time is not otherwise compensable (i.e., when the travel is not during regular duty hours or otherwise considered hours of work).  This provision is codified in 5 U.S.C. 5550b.  Individual offices do not have the discretion to deny an employee compensatory time off for travel if it has been earned and applied in accordance with Department policy.  Compensatory time off for travel is non-monetary and if not used prior to its expiration, never converts to cash.

3 FAM 3173  Eligibility

(CT:PER-992;   05-20-2020) (State Only) (Applies to Civil Service and Foreign Service Employees)

a. Compensatory time off for travel may be earned by:

(1)  An American direct-hire employee as defined in 5 U.S.C. 5541(2);

(2)  Part-time employees may be entitled to compensatory time off for travel if the time in travel status does not qualify as compensable hours of work under 5 U.S.C. 5542(b)(2)(B) and 5 CFR 550.112(g)(2), and meets the other requirements in 5 CFR 550, subpart N;

(3)  Tenured Foreign Service Officers class FS-01 and below under the Foreign Service Act of 1980, as amended; effective October 23, 2007;

(4)  Wage grade (prevailing rate) employees under the provisions codified in 5 U.S.C. 5550b and 5 CFR 550, subpart N; effective April 27, 2008; and

(5)  Eligibility of locally employed staff depends on local labor law and how the employee was hired.  If the locally employed staff member is appointed under the Foreign Service Act of 1980, as amended, the employee may be eligible.  If the locally employed staff member is hired under a personal services agreement, local labor law prevails.  The office of Overseas Employment Compensation Management Division (GTM/OE/CM) may be contacted for further information.

b. Compensatory time off for travel may NOT be earned by:

(1)  Members of the Senior Executive Service;

(2)  Members of the Senior Foreign Service;

(3)  Executive Schedule employees; or

(4)  Employees on an intermittent schedule.

3 FAM 3174  Determining Eligible Time in Travel Status

a. To be creditable under this provision, travel must be officially authorized.  The travel must be for work purposes and must be approved by an authorized Department official or under established Department policies.  Examples of eligible travel would be for performing official work at another duty station, attending an official conference, or attending official training.

b. Compensatory time off for travel may only be earned for time in an official travel status away from an employee’s official duty station when such time is not otherwise compensable as regular duty pay or premium compensation.  For Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), exempt employees, compensable refers to periods of time creditable as hours of work for the purpose of determining a specific pay entitlement.  For FLSA non-exempt employees, please see 5 CFR 551.422.

c.  Eligible Time in Official Travel Status includes:

(1)  Time spent traveling between the official duty station and a temporary duty station;

(2)  Time spent traveling between two temporary duty stations;

(3)  The usual waiting time preceding or interrupting such travel.  The usual waiting time for domestic flights may not exceed two hours, and for overseas flights may not exceed three hours.  Extended waiting time is not creditable; or

(4)  Time in travel status ends when the employee arrives at the temporary duty worksite or lodging in the temporary duty station, wherever the employee arrives first.  Time in travel status resumes when an employee departs from the temporary duty worksite or lodging in the temporary duty station, from whichever the employee departs last.

d. Time that is NOT eligible:

(1)  Travel for the purpose of permanent change of station, temporary change of station, home leave, rest and recuperation travel, family visitation travel, regional rest breaks, medical evacuation, emergency visitation travel, and post evacuations are not considered time in official travel status for the purpose of earning comp time off for travel;

(2)  An extended waiting period is not considered time in official travel status and is not creditable.  An example of extended waiting periods include: flight delays or cancelations due to weather issues, mechanical problems, airline administrative problems, etc.;

(3)  Regular duty hours of work; and

(4)  Hours of travel time that are otherwise compensable hours of work under the overtime pay provisions in 5 CFR 550.112(g) or 5 CFR 551.422.

e. Reference 5 CFR 551.422 states for non-exempt employees, time spent traveling must be considered compensable hours of work if:

(1)  The official travel occurs during the employee's regular working hours;

(2)  The employee is required to drive or perform other work as part of the official travel;

(3)  An employee is required to travel as a passenger on a one-day assignment away from the official duty station location; or

(4)  The employee is required to travel as a passenger overnight away from the official duty station location and the official travel occurs on a non-workday during hours that correspond to the employee's regular working hours.

3 FAM 3175  Factors That Influence Compensatory Time Off for Travel

3 FAM 3175.1  Time Zones

When an employee’s travel involves two or more time zones, the time zone from the point of first departure must be used to determine how many hours (elapsed time) the employee actually spent in a travel status for the purpose of accruing compensatory time off for travel.  For example, if an employee departs from Tokyo, going to FSI for training, the employee calculates the trip based on the Tokyo time zone.  Likewise, the return trip is calculated on the Washington, DC time zone since it now is the point of first departure.

3 FAM 3175.2  Modes of Transportation

a. In the case of an employee who is offered one mode of transportation (i.e., flying) and who is permitted to use an alternate mode of transportation (i.e., train or POV), or who travels at a time or by a route other than that selected by the Department, the agency MUST determine the estimated amount of time in a travel status the employee would have had if the employee had used the mode of transportation offered by the Department or traveled at the time or by the route selected by the Department.  For example, if the flight time is two hours but the travel by train takes six hours, the employee is only eligible to request two hours as creditable for comp time off for travel.  The fact that one mode of transportation may save the Department money has no bearing on the amount of comp time off for travel that an employee earns.

b. Employees who take an approved/authorized rest break during their travel that causes the compensatory time off for travel eligibility to change from what would have been available for the most direct route are ONLY authorized to claim the amount of time that would have been earned had the rest break not been taken.

c.  The class of accommodation, such as business class, does not influence whether the time in travel status is compensable.  Allowing an employee to upgrade travel to business class does not eliminate an employee’s eligibility to earn compensatory time off for travel.

3 FAM 3175.3  Meals

It is no longer required that an employee deduct the bona fide meal periods during travel time or waiting time.

3 FAM 3175.4  Change of Administrative Work Week

An agency may NOT adjust the regularly scheduled administrative work week that normally applies to an employee (full-time or part-time) solely for the purpose of including planned travel time that would not otherwise be considered compensable hours of work.  For example, if an employee is required to travel on a Saturday, which is normally a day off, the supervisor cannot change the administrative work week to be Tuesday through Saturday, making Saturday a compensable day and thus making that day ineligible for compensatory time off for travel.

3 FAM 3175.5  Commuting Time

a. Travel outside of regular working hours to or from a transportation terminal (airport, train, etc.) within the limits of the employee’s official duty station is considered equivalent to commuting time and is not creditable travel time.

b. Travel outside of regular working hours between an employee’s home and a temporary duty station or transportation terminal outside the limits of the employees duty station is considered creditable travel time.  However, the Department must deduct the employee’s normal home-to-work/work-to-home commuting time from the creditable travel time.

c.  A mileage radius no greater than 50 miles applies to determine whether an employee's travel is within or outside the limits of the employee's official duty station.  See 5 CFR 550.112(j).

3 FAM 3176  Recording and Use of Compensatory Time off For Travel

(CT:PER-1131;   05-26-2023) (State Only) (Applies to Civil Service and Foreign Service Employees)

a. Fifteen (15) Minute Increments: Compensatory time off for travel is credited and used in increments of 15 minutes.

b. Thirty (30) day Limit for Requesting Credit: The Department requires employees to submit credit requests, in writing, to their supervisor with specific times, justification, and itineraries, within 30 days of completion of eligible official travel.  This request should be accompanied by Form DS-5106, Compensatory Time Off for Travel worksheet.  Requests for compensatory time off for travel that are submitted more than 30 days after the last day of travel will be denied.

c.  Documenting Compensatory Time Off for Travel on Cuff Records and TATEL: The Department’s pay system will not accommodate the specialized compensatory time off for travel category; and, as a result, timekeepers are required to keep paper records of the compensatory time off for travel earned by each individual using a separate ledger ( 3 FAM Exhibit 3176) ;

(1)  Compensatory time off for travel is not recorded in the TATEL system, though comp time off for travel used will be recorded in TATEL;

(2)  Time used should be entered in TATEL as “XA” with a notation “compensatory time off for travel”;

(3)  Timekeepers should keep a copy of the Form DS-7100, Request for Leave or Approved Absence with the paper record of compensatory time off for travel earned and subtract the time used;

(4)  Regulations require that time is charged in a chronological manner, i.e., first-in, first-out; and

(5)  These are official records and must be maintained by each individual office.

d. Time Limit for Using Compensatory Time Off for Travel: Compensatory time off for travel must be used within 26 pay periods from the time the eligible compensatory time off for travel is earned.  Otherwise it is forfeited.  Exceptions may be granted:

(1)  If the employee with unused compensatory time off for travel separates;

(2)  The employee is placed in a leave without pay status to perform service in the uniformed service (as defined in 38 U.S.C. 4303 and 5 CFR 353.102) and later returns to service through the exercise of a re-employment right provided by law, Executive Order, or regulation;

(3)  An on-the-job injury with entitlement to compensation under 5 U.S.C. chapter 81 and later recovers sufficiently to return to work; or

(4)  An exigency of the service beyond the employee’s control and an authorized Department official, has sole discretion, to extend the time limit for using such compensatory time off for travel, not to exceed an additional 26 pay periods.

e. Scheduling and Using Accrued Compensatory Time Off for Travel: Employees must request permission from their supervisor via Form DS-7100 , Request for Leave or Approved Absence , to schedule the use of accrued compensatory time off for travel.  Earned compensatory time off for travel must be charged on a first-in, first-out (chronological) basis.

f.  Use of Compensatory Time Off for Travel While in Official Travel Status: In accordance with 5 CFR 550.1406, employees must request permission to schedule the use of accrued compensatory time off for travel in accordance with agency-established policies and procedures.  Department policy states that employees will not be authorized to use compensatory time off for travel in the same trip in which it is earned.

3 FAM 3177  Transfer Within the Department

Compensatory time off for travel may be transferred to another office within the Department, unless the employee moves to a federal position that is covered by the compensatory time off for travel regulations, pursuant to 5 CFR 550.1407(d).  The losing timekeeper must provide complete copies of the employee's compensatory time for travel to the gaining timekeeper.  This includes a copy of the authorized approval memo, the paper ledger recording time earned and used, and the current balance with the forfeiture dates.

3 FAM 3178  Forfeiture

Compensatory time off for travel is forfeited:

(1)  Except as provided in 3 FAM 3176 (d), if not used by the end of the 26th pay period during which it was earned.  NOTE: The 26 pay periods run from the time travel was completed, not from the time it was credited;

(2)  Upon voluntary transfer to another agency;

(3)  Upon movement to a non-covered position, or if there is a change in employee status, such as intermittent or promotion to SFS/SES; or

(4)  Except as provided in 3 FAM 3176 (d), upon separation from the federal government.

3 FAM 3179  Compensatory Time Off for Travel is NOT Premium Pay

a. Under no circumstances may an individual receive monetary compensation for any unused compensatory time off for travel the employee has earned.

b. Accrued compensatory time off for travel is not considered in applying the premium pay cap limitations established under 5 U.S.C. 5547 and 5 CFR 550.105 through 550.107, or the aggregate limitation on pay established under 5 U.S.C 5307 and 5 CFR 530, subpart B.

3 FAM Exhibit 3176   Compensatory Time Off For Travel Record of Hours Earned and Used

(CT:PER-751;   10-30-2014)

_____________________________

Traveler’s Name

Approver/Supervisor’s Name

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Compensatory Time Off for Travel

To:   All U.S. Geological Survey Employees From:   S. Kaye Cook /signed/ Chief, Office of Human Resources Subject:   Compensatory Time Off for Travel

Beginning January 28, 2005, employees are eligible to earn compensatory time off for time spent in a travel status away from their official duty station when such time is not otherwise compensable. This provision does not apply to employees in the Senior Executive Service and Wage Grade employees.

Until the Department of the Interior issues additional guidance, the following will apply: Whenever possible, supervisors should schedule officially approved travel within regularly scheduled work hours. If travel during regularly scheduled work hours is not possible, supervisors may authorize compensatory time off in accordance with the guidance issued by the Office of Human Resources Management (OPM).

For information about what qualifies as time in travel status and the restrictions of this new provision, see  OPM’s interim regulations . You may also review  OPM’s questions and answers , and  see examples of creditable travel time .

Compensatory time off for travel is credited in increments of 15 minutes. You should use pay code 046 for “Travel Compensatory Time – Earned” and pay code 047 for “Travel Compensatory Time – Used” in Quicktime. Any compensatory time off for travel must be used by the end of the 26th pay period after the pay period in which it was earned, or it will be forfeited. Payment is not authorized for compensatory time off for travel.

Both earned and used compensatory time off for travel will initially be combined with the regular compensatory time balances on the leave and earnings statements. The National Business Center is currently working with Employee Express to ensure that compensatory time off for travel balances will be displayed separately in the near future.

If you have any questions, please contact your  servicing Human Resources Office  for assistance.

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Special compensatory time off for travel.

This program allows employees to accrue compensatory time off for time spent by an employee in a travel status away from the employee’s official duty station when such time is not otherwise compensable. The travel must be officially authorized for work purposes and approved by an authorized official. 

An employee as defined in Title 5 U.S.C. 5541(2), who is employed in an “Executive Agency,” as defined in 5 U.S.C. 105, ) is entitled to earn and use compensatory time off for travel regardless of whether the employee is exempt or non-exempt from the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Coverage includes employees in Senior Level (SL) and Scientific of Professional (ST) positions, Federal Wage System (or Wage Grade, WG), and commissioned (tenured) Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) and Commissioned Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO). 

Senior Executive Service members and intermittent employees (who do not have a scheduled tour of duty for leave purposes) are excluded from coverage.

Effective Dates of Coverage

Final regulations implementing compensatory time off for travel for most employees was effective May 17, 2007. Coverage for WG employees was effective April 27, 2008. Coverage for Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) and Commissioned Foreign Service Officers (in pay plan FO) was effective June 8, 2006. 

Creditable Travel Time 

Time in a travel status includes the time the employee spends traveling between the official duty station and a temporary duty station (or the lodging in the temporary duty station) or between two temporary duty stations (or the lodging in the temporary duty station) and the “usual waiting time” that precedes or interrupts such travel. 

“Usual waiting time” is the time required to arrive at the airport (or other transportation hub) for security checks-ins, etc., prior to a designated departure time. 

Time spent at an intervening airport (or transportation hub) waiting for a connecting flight also is creditable time.

In the Department, “usual waiting time” is 2 hours for domestic travel and up to 4 hours for international travel. 

Non-Creditable Travel Time 

The following do not qualify as creditable time:

• Unusually long or extended waiting periods that occur prior to an employee’s initial departure time or between actual periods of travel if the employee is free to rest, sleep, or otherwise use the time for his/her own purposes;
• Long waiting periods that occur during an employee's regular scheduled working hours; these periods are compensable as part of the employee's regularly scheduled administrative workweek;
• Time spent traveling outside of an employee’s regular working hours to or from a transportation terminal that are within the limits of the employee’s official duty station;
• Time spent traveling in connection with the performance of union representational activities;
• Time spent traveling on a holiday or an “in-lieu-of” holiday; the employee is entitled to his or her rate of basic pay for the holiday hours; and
• Time spent at a temporary duty station between arrival and departure times; and
• Meal times. 

Once an employee arrives at the temporary duty station (i.e., TDY work site, training site, or hotel at the temporary duty station), the employee is no longer considered to be in a travel status. Any time spent at a temporary duty station between arrival and departure is not creditable for earning compensatory time off for travel. 

Offsetting Normal Commuting Time

When an employee travels directly between the home and a temporary duty station that is outside the limits of the employee's official duty station, the employee's normal “home-to-work/work-to-home” commuting time must be deducted from the creditable travel time. 

Normal commuting time must also be deducted from the creditable travel time if the employee is required to travel outside of regular working hours between the home and a transportation hub outside the limits of the employee's official duty station.

Travel between Multiple Time Zones 

When an employee’s travel involves two or more time zones, the time zone from the point of first departure must be used to determine travel status for accruing compensatory time off. For example, if an employee travels from his official duty station in Washington, DC, to a temporary duty station in Boulder, CO, the Washington, DC, time zone must be used to determine hours in a travel status. However, on the return trip to Washington, DC, the time zone from Boulder, CO, must be used to determine hours in a travel status 

Timeframes for Use

An employee must use accrued compensatory time off by the end of the 26th pay period after the pay period during which it was earned and reported on the webTA. 

All compensatory time off for travel must be used in the chronological order in which it was earned; that is, time earned first is used first. 

Forfeiture of Unused Hours

Accumulated compensatory time that is unused by the end of the 26th pay period after the pay period in which it was earned is forfeited. Unused balances are also forfeited when an employee voluntarily transfers to another agency or separates from Federal service. Forfeited hours may not be paid or restored. 

When an employee fails to use accumulated compensatory time balances within the required timeframe due to an exigency of the public service beyond the employee’s control, the time limit for using the hours may be extended for up to an additional 26 pay periods. Additional extensions are not authorized and forfeited hours may not be restored. 

Exceptions to Forfeiture of Unused Hours

Unused compensatory time off for travel must be held in abeyance for an employee who separates, or is placed in a leave without pay (LWOP) status, and later returns:

• To perform service in the uniformed services (see 38 U.S.C. § 4303 and 5 CFR § 353.102) with restoration rights; and 
• Due to an on-the-job injury with entitlement to injury compensation under 5 U.S.C. Chapter 81. 

In these cases, the employee must use all of the compensatory time off for travel held in abeyance by the end of the 26th pay period following the pay period in which he/she returns to duty, or the compensatory time off will be forfeited. 

Biweekly Salary Limitation and Aggregate Limitation on Pay

Compensatory time off for travel is not considered in applying the bi-weekly pay cap under 5 U.S.C. 5547 or the aggregate limitation on pay under 5 U.S.C.507. 

Alternate Mode of Transportation

When an employee is allowed to use an alternate mode of transportation, or travels at a time/route other than what is initially approved by the authorizing official, creditable time for travel status must be estimated. The estimate is based on the amount of time the employee would have had if the mode of transportation or the time/route initially approved by the authorizing official was used. In determining the estimated amount of creditable time for travel that an employee would have had, the employee will be credited with the lesser of the:

• Estimated time in a travel status the employee would have had if the employee had traveled at the initially approved time, or
• Employee's actual time in a travel status at a time other than that initially approved.

Applying for Compensatory Time off for Travel

Employee must officially request the earning of compensatory time prior to the actual travel or within 10 calendar days of termination of the travel. The request may be submitted via the webTA Leave and Premium Pay Request functionality, Commerce Department Form CD-81, “Authorization for Paid Overtime and/or Holiday Work, and for Compensatory Overtime”, electronic mail, or memorandum. The request should estimate the number of hours the employee expects to earn. Upon the employee’s return from travel, the employee must provide a chronological record of travel information including:

• Duration of the normal home-to-work commute;
• Time and place of departure (i.e., the employee’s home or official duty station);
• Actual time spent traveling to and from the transportation terminal if the terminal is outside of the employee’s official duty station;
• Usual waiting time; and
• Time of arrival at and departure from the temporary duty station. 

Earning Limitations 

There is no limit on the amount of compensatory time for travel that may be earned. 

Using Compensatory Time off for Travel 

Compensatory time off for travel is credited and used in 15 minute increments with the compensatory time off for travel earned first being charged first. Additional leave will be charged in corresponding units. Employees must request permission from their supervisor or leave approving official to schedule the use of accrued compensatory time off via the webTA Leave and Premium Pay Request functionality, a SF-71, Application for Leave, or Form OPM-71, Request for Leave or Approved Absence. 

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Try this pro trick for an affordable and stress-free summer vacation

• Travelers are facing high prices and crowds this summer.
• The best way to get around the high prices and crowds: Be flexible.
• There are ways to become flexible during the busiest travel season of the year, from planning your trip to the tools that get you there.

Life is full of compromises, and that will never be more true than when you're traveling this summer.

Flights will be packed. Just before Memorial Day, the Transportation Security Administration set a new record for most air travelers screened. It checked nearly 3 million passengers on May 24, surpassing the previous record set last Thanksgiving. U.S. airlines are projecting a record summer . They expect to fly 271 million passengers in June, July and August, up 6% from last summer.

Roads will be jammed. GasBuddy’s latest summer travel survey predicts 76% of Americans plan to take a road trip sometime between Memorial Day and Labor Day — up 18% from last summer.

Check out   Elliott Confidential , the newsletter the travel industry doesn't want you to read. Each issue is filled with breaking news, deep insights, and exclusive strategies for becoming a better traveler. But don't tell anyone!

Hotels are full, too. Average hotel occupancy will rise to 63.4%, the highest level since 2019, according to the consulting firm HVS .

Learn more: Best travel insurance

There's only one way to get around the high prices and crowds: Be flexible.

"With peak season prices, crowds, flight delays and more, your itinerary should be in pencil — not pen," said Bill Smith, CEO of Landing , a company that offers flexible rentals. "Being flexible can help to minimize your travel spend while maximizing your adventure this summer."

There are ways to become flexible during the busiest travel season of the year, from planning your trip to the tools that get you there. Being a more flexible traveler also means thinking about travel a little differently — bending but not breaking.

Should you repeat your vacation? Let's settle this once and for all.

Junk fees: Travelers are drowning in junk fees during the summer of surcharges

Ways to become more flexible this summer

So, how do you become more flexible? Here are a few examples:

• Fly to another city. Sometimes, the place you're trying to visit is too popular — and expensive. That's what happened to Phil Strazzulla when he tried to visit Milan last summer. Airline ticket prices were more than $1,000. But he could fly to nearby Zürich, Switzerland, for less. So he did. "Not only did this save us more than $300 for each ticket, but the drive over the mountains was spectacular," recalled Strazzulla, who runs a software review company. "Travel flexibility can result in cost savings — and a unique experience."
• Go off the beaten path. Being truly flexible can mean getting outside your comfort zone a little. "Instead of Rome, Italy, go to the Puglia region," said Lynna Goldsby, a cruise planner with Travel With Lynna. "Instead of London, try Normandy or Bath." Trying these alternate destinations can still satisfy your travel itch but also reduce your expenses for lodging, restaurants, tours and transfers, she said.
• Take a detour. Airfares are often less expensive if you fly out of the way through an airline's hub. Don't waste that opportunity, said Linda Robert, a travel coach with Back in the Groove Again. Airlines such as Icelandair, Qatar Airways and Copa have stopover programs that allow you to enjoy a day or two at their hubs before continuing to your vacation destination, often at no extra cost. "This strategy enriches your travel experience and offers a cost-effective way to see more places," she said. 

Here are a few useful flexibility tools

There are a few new ways to be flexible. 

For example, Landing, which is a favorite of digital nomads and location-independent workers, rolled out a new tool this week. Its 12-month Flex Stay program offers renters the opportunity to save up to 30% on monthly rates by committing to living with Landing for a year, which has locations in more than 375 cities.

"This new offering gives members the freedom to roam throughout our nationwide network of fully furnished apartments as much — or as little — as they’d like throughout the year," said Smith.

Another newish feature is Airbnb's flexible dates search , which lets you select a period of time rather than a specific date, to see more options. Airbnb introduced the feature during the pandemic, and it can help you save as much as 20% on vacation rental accommodations.

One of my all-time favorite tools is available on almost every self-respecting online travel site. It's the ability to search for airfares or hotel rates based on a more flexible schedule. Google Flights and Kayak are great at showing you more flexible options. Pro tip: Don't limit your flexibility to dates; select a region you want to travel to, which may include an alternate airport.

Will new airline consumer protection rules help you when you fly this summer?

Tipping is 'not an entitlement': Should travelers stop tipping for everything?

You can also be flexible when it comes to the rate you pay, said Virginia Tech hospitality and tourism professor Mahmood Khan. Hotels cut their rates by about 20% if you pay upfront (but you have to be sure you're going because those lower rates are usually nonrefundable).

"At times, selecting a hotel away from busy destinations, yet comfortable for commuting, helps in finding an economical deal," he added.

But how do you put it all together this summer, including the flexible itinerary and the tools? Funny you should ask.

What are some more ways to increase your travel flexibility?

There are also new strategies to increase your travel flexibility, which can help you save money and a big headache when you're on the road. 

"A critical skill is knowing how and when to put white space into your itinerary," said Stephanie Chastain, owner of Infinite Ireland Travel, a boutique travel consultancy. "A too-rigid schedule leaves travelers vulnerable to travel hiccups that disrupt well-intended plans."

What is white space? It's literally that — a blank page on your itinerary. An empty afternoon with free time. A leisurely breakfast instead of getting up at the crack of dawn for an all-day tour. It's a rest day every two or three days, to prevent yourself from vacation burnout and to give your schedule some wiggle room.

Even the experts keep relearning the lesson of flexibility. For example, I had to fly from Anguilla to Miami at the last minute recently, and the flights were crazy expensive — around $800 for a one-way ticket. Just as I got ready to book, I realized that Anguilla is a short ferry ride away from St. Martin, which has more flights. 

Total savings: $200. 

Being flexible means thinking about travel in a different way than everyone else. It's the belief that there are many ways to get to your destination and that if you don't get there on the exact day your vacation starts, it's not the end of the world. Travel companies love sticking it to you when you absolutely must be in one place at a fixed time. Be a contrarian. But don't go too far.

Bend so you don't break

Some of the best travel advice for people who want to be flexible comes from veteran travel advisor Susan Sherren, who runs Couture Trips , a travel agency. She told me that lowering your expectations is one of the best ways to stay flexible.

"Life isn't perfect," she said. "Your trip will likely involve unforeseen and unpredictable events."

One more thing: Being too rigid is a recipe for a terrible trip. I've made that mistake before, and believe me, it's no fun.

You don't want to take it too far. By all means, schedule your flight on a weekday to avoid high fares. Try booking your flight by using one of the flexible fare features on Google Flights or Kayak, or check out Landing's new flex program. 

But if you make too many compromises, it won't be much of a vacation. You'll end up staying in a motel in the suburbs, far away from all the attractions, and missing all the fun. Be flexible, but be smart. 

Bend — but don't break.

Christopher Elliott  is an author, consumer advocate, and journalist. He founded  Elliott Advocacy , a nonprofit organization that helps solve consumer problems. He publishes  Elliott Confidential , a travel newsletter, and the  Elliott Report , a news site about customer service. If you need help with a consumer problem, you can  reach him here  or email him at  [email protected] .

The Key Points at the top of this article were created with the assistance of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and reviewed by a journalist before publication. No other parts of the article were generated using AI. Learn more .

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Hours of Work for Travel

Fact sheet: hours of work for travel, description.

In limited circumstances, travel time may be considered hours of work. The rules on travel hours of work depend on whether an employee is covered by or exempt from the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). For FLSA-exempt employees, the crediting of travel time as hours of work is governed under title 5 rules-in particular, 5 U.S.C. 5542(b)(2) and 5544(a)(3) and 5 CFR 550.112(g) and (j). For FLSA-covered employees, travel time is credited if it is qualifying hours of work under either the title 5 rules or under OPM's FLSA regulations-in particular, 5 CFR 551.401(h) and 551.422.

Employee Coverage

Title 5 overtime laws and regulations apply to most FLSA-exempt Federal employees, including General Schedule and prevailing rate employees. Certain employees, such as members of the Senior Executive Service, are not eligible for overtime pay or other premium pay under title 5. (See 5 U.S.C. 5541(2) and 5 CFR 550.101 for coverage rules.)

OPM's FLSA regulations apply to most FLSA-covered Federal employees. (See 5 U.S.C. 5542(b)(2) and 5544(a)(3) and 5 CFR 551.102.) An employee may determine his or her FLSA status by checking block 35 of the most recent Notification of Personnel Action (SF-50) to find out whether his or her position is nonexempt (N) or exempt (E) from the overtime pay provisions of the FLSA. Alternatively, an employee may obtain a determination from his or her servicing personnel office.

Overtime Work

In general, overtime hours are hours of work that are ordered or approved (or are "suffered or permitted" for FLSA-covered employees) and are performed by an employee in excess of 8 hours in a day or 40 hours in a workweek. (See 5 U.S.C. 5542(a), 5544(a), and 6121(6) and (7), and 5 CFR 550.111 and 551.501. Note exceptions.)

Travel That is Hours of Work Under Title 5

Under 5 U.S.C. 5542(b)(2) and 5 CFR 550.112(g), official travel away from an employee's official duty station is hours of work if the travel is-

• within the days and hours of the employee's regularly scheduled administrative workweek, including regularly scheduled overtime hours, or
• involves the performance of work while traveling (such as driving a loaded truck);
• is incident to travel that involves the performance of work while traveling (such as driving an empty truck back to the point of origin);
• is carried out under arduous and unusual conditions (e.g., travel on rough terrain or under extremely severe weather conditions); or
• results from an event that could not be scheduled or controlled administratively by any individual or agency in the executive branch of Government (such as training scheduled solely by a private firm or a job-related court appearance required by a court subpoena).

An agency may not adjust an employee's normal regularly scheduled administrative workweek solely to include travel hours that would not otherwise be considered hours of work.

Travel That is Hours of Work Under the FLSA

For FLSA-covered employees, time spent traveling is hours of work if-

• an employee is required to travel during regular working hours (i.e., during the regularly scheduled administrative workweek);
• an employee is required to work during travel (e.g., by being required to drive a Government vehicle as part of a work assignment);
• an employee is required to travel as a passenger on a 1-day assignment away from the official duty station; or
• an employee is required to travel as a passenger on an overnight assignment away from the official duty station during hours on nonworkdays that correspond to the employee's regular working hours. (See 5 CFR 551.422(a).)

Official Duty Station

"Official duty station" is defined in 5 CFR 550.112(j) and 551.422(d). An agency may prescribe a mileage radius of not greater than 50 miles to determine whether an employee's travel is within or outside the limits of the employee's official duty station for determining entitlement to overtime pay for travel.

Administrative Workweek

An administrative workweek is a period of 7 consecutive calendar days designated in advance by the head of an agency under 5 U.S.C. 6101. The regularly scheduled administrative workweek is the period within the administrative workweek during which the employee is scheduled to work in advance of the administrative workweek. (See definitions in 5 CFR 610.102. See also 5 CFR 550.103 and 551.421.)

Commuting Time

For FLSA-covered employees, normal commuting time from home to work and from work to home is not hours of work. (See 5 CFR 551.422(b).) However, commuting time may be hours of work to the extent that the employee is required to perform substantial work under the control and direction of the employing agency-i.e., productive work of a significant nature that is an integral and indispensable part of the employee's principal activities. The fact that an employee is driving a Government vehicle in commuting to and from work is not a basis for determining that commuting time is hours of work. (See Bobo decision cited in the References section.)

Similarly, for FLSA-exempt employees, normal commuting time from home to work and from work to home is not hours of work. (See 5 CFR 550.112(j)(2).) However, commuting time may be hours of work to the extent that the employee is officially ordered or approved to perform substantial work while commuting.

Normal "home-to-work/work-to-home" commuting includes travel between an employee's home and a temporary duty location within the limits of the employee's official duty station. For an employee assigned to a temporary duty station overnight, normal "home-to-work/work-to-home" commuting also includes travel between the employee's temporary place of lodging and a work site within the limits of the temporary duty station.

If an employee (whether FLSA-covered or exempt) is required to travel directly between home and a temporary duty location outside the limits of the employee's official duty station, the time the employee would have spent in normal commuting must be deducted from any hours of work outside the regularly scheduled administrative workweek (or, for FLSA covered employees, outside corresponding hours on a nonwork day) that may be credited for the travel time. (The travel time is credited as hours of work only as allowed under the applicable rules-e.g., for an FLSA-covered employee, if the travel is part of a 1-day assignment away from the official duty station.)

• 5 U.S.C. 5542(b)(2) (General Schedule employees)
• 5 U.S.C. 5544(a)(3) (Prevailing rate employees)
• 5 CFR 550.112(g) and (j), 610.102, and 610.123
• 5 CFR 551.401(h) and 551.422 (OPM's FLSA regulations)
• Decision by United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, Jerry Bobo v. United States , 136 F.3rd 1465 (Fed. Cir. 1998) affirming Court of Federal Claims decision of same name, 37 Fed. Cl. 690 (Fed. Cl. 1997).
• Section 4 of the Portal-to-Portal Act of 1947 (61 Stat. 84) as amended in 1996 by section 2102 of Public Law 104-188. (See 29 U.S.C. 254.)

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For a lot of people, buying car insurance is like buying sliced bread. It’s not the most exciting purchase, and the options all seem similar. So thrifty shoppers might simply reach for the cheapest thing on the shelf. But like cheap bread, cheap car insurance may leave you wishing you spent a little more on quality.

“The cheapest is not always the best,” warns Jessica McNally, an agency owner with Goosehead Insurance in Dallas. That’s because there are lots of factors that make up a car insurance company. And while price is one of them, it’s best to look at the bigger picture.

Here’s what to look for when picking the best car insurance company.

1. Choose a financially stable company

The best car insurance companies have plenty of money on hand to pay for customers’ claims. It’s important to check an insurer’s financial stability before buying a policy, especially if it’s a smaller insurer you’ve never heard of.

There are several independent agencies that evaluate the financial strength of insurance companies. One example is A.M. Best. You can use its online search tool to find an insurer’s financial strength rating. Companies with a rating of A or higher are considered to have an excellent ability to pay out customer claims.

2. Check customer satisfaction ratings and reviews

Not every insurer is customer-first. That’s why it’s important to research the customer satisfaction of insurers you’re considering.

You can turn to surveys from companies like J.D. Power to find insurers with the best customer satisfaction scores [0] J.D. Power . Auto Insurance Customer Satisfaction Plummets as Rates Continue to Surge, J.D. Power Finds . Accessed May 21, 2024. View all sources . Or, if you don’t mind doing a little detective work, you can compare customer complaints against insurers by using the National Association of Insurance Commissioners’ website . But take other people’s emotionally charged comments about companies or agents you might read online with a grain of salt, McNally advises.

3. Look for convenience

A great auto insurer should offer multiple ways to manage a policy. For example, some insurers allow customers to use a mobile app to file and track claims. But it’s hard to tell how simple it’ll be to file a claim or perform other essential tasks, like paying your premium, before becoming a customer.

Some telltale signs that an insurer will be easy to work with are high mobile app ratings, flexible customer service hours and an easy-to-use website with helpful content. Consider asking a company representative to walk you through the claims process to learn what you’ll need to do if you have to file a claim. And pay attention to how the company communicates with you. "If they don't properly communicate, well, that's a warning sign," says Michael DeLong, a research and advocacy associate for the nonprofit Consumer Federation of America.

4. Pick an affordable company

Car insurance premiums are stretching to record-breaking heights [0] U.S. BUREAU OF LABOR STATISTICS . Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers (CPI-U) . Accessed May 21, 2024. View all sources , and almost half of U.S. consumers shopped for a new car insurance policy in the past year, according to an April 2024 report by J.D. Power [0] J.D. Power . Half of Auto Insurance Customers Currently Shopping for New Policies, J.D. Power Finds . Accessed May 21, 2024. View all sources . The best car insurance companies offer competitive rates and a variety of potential discounts.

It’s not hard to get car insurance quotes online from many companies. Make sure you compare the same coverage options throughout the quote-gathering process. And don’t forget to look for car insurance discounts, like breaks for being a good driver, paying your premium in full or driving a new car.

More tips to find the best car insurance

When shopping for the best car insurance, keep the following tips in mind.

Assess your needs. Before buying car insurance, take a moment to reflect on what’s important to you and your family. For example, maybe you prioritize affordability and a well-polished mobile app, but don’t need accident forgiveness .  

Consider small insurers. There are lots of small insurance companies you’ve probably never heard of. These regional insurers may provide lower rates and better customer service than the big companies you see advertised on TV.

Work with an independent agent. While it may be easy to get quotes yourself, independent car insurance agents and brokers can streamline the process. These experts vet companies and compile quotes from small and large insurers on your behalf. Independent agents and brokers can especially come in handy if you have a less-than-perfect driving record and can’t find insurance on your own.

Do your research. Search online for recent mentions of a company in the news before buying a policy, recommends DeLong. If you find a company has lots of recent lawsuits against it, you may want to think twice about signing on the dotted line. “And if they've had to pay out settlements, that's an even bigger red flag,” DeLong says.

Shop around once a year. Make a practice of shopping for car insurance every year — especially if price is important to you. Insurers adjust car insurance rates regularly, so what might have been the most affordable option last year may no longer be a bargain.

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Unconventional Sex Let Anglerfish Conquer the Deep Ocean

During a chaotic period some 50 million years ago, the strange deep-sea creatures left the ocean bottom and thrived by clamping onto their mates.

A female anglerfish, with a bioluminescent lure, in waters off Hawaii. Credit... Doug Perrine/Alamy

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By William J. Broad

• May 30, 2024

How did the ghoulish creatures known as anglerfish pull off the evolutionary feat that let them essentially take over the ocean’s sunless depths?

It took peculiar sex — extremely peculiar sex.

Scientists at Yale University have discovered that a burst of anglerfish diversification began some 50 million years ago as the ancestral line developed a bizarre strategy to ensure successful reproduction in the dark wilderness.

To mate, tiny males would clamp with sharp teeth onto the bellies of much larger females. Some males would let go after mating while others would permanently fuse into the females. The males that stayed attached became permanent organs for sperm production.

“We found that a cascade of traits, including those required for sexual parasitism, allowed anglerfishes to invade the deep sea,” Chase D. Brownstein , a graduate student in the ecology and evolutionary biology department at Yale who was the study’s lead author, said in a news release.

Today, there are more than 300 species of anglerfish, which makes them the most varied family of vertebrates in the ocean’s lightless zone. The region starts about 1,000 feet down — just beneath the photic zone, which gets enough sunlight to support photosynthesis and most of the sea’s plants — and descends for miles. The team’s study was published last week in the journal Current Biology.

Finding a mate in the deep sea can be extremely difficult because of the environment’s incomprehensibly vast size. By some estimates, the dark zone amounts to more than 97 percent of the planetary space inhabited by living things, mainly because the ocean plunges to a maximum depth of nearly seven miles. In contrast, land habitats make up less than 1 percent of the planet’s biosphere because the band of life is so narrow, making its volume quite small.

The anglerfish’s bizarre mating routine is seen as counteracting the otherwise slim chances of finding a mate in the world’s largest ecosystem. It is the only known vertebrate that employs sexual parasitism, and that gave it an evolutionary edge.

Over time, the male can physically fuse with the female, connecting to her skin and bloodstream. Eventually, he loses his eyes and all internal organs except for his testes. A female can carry several males on her body.

The Yale team documented how immune systems that attack foreign threats changed over time so the female hosts would not reject the parasitic males.

Anglerfish get their name from how females use rodlike appendages with glowing tips to lure prey into their needlelike teeth. They’re fish that fish . Their mouths are so large and their bodies so flexible that they can swallow prey up to twice their size.

The Yale team used fossils and genetic data from more than 100 living anglerfish species to determine that the burst of diversification came during a major global heat spike between 50 million and 35 million years ago. The world’s oceans were thrown into turmoil, and the bottom-walking ancestors of the anglerfish began to explore the wider oceanic world.

“It happened in the blink of an evolutionary eye about 50 million years ago,” Mr. Brownstein said in an interview. “It was like whales going back into the ocean. It was amazing.”

The team found that, simultaneously, the fish developed their unusual reproductive skills. It was unable to determine which came first — temporary or permanent attachment.

Some female anglerfish can grow quite large, reaching more than three feet in length, but most are smaller. The free-swimming males typically are a few inches long.

How do they find the females in the perpetual darkness of the deep sea?

Mr. Brownstein said the males have enlarged nasal organs that are thought to let them follow faint trails of female pheromones through the darkness in order to find their partner.

“You sniff out your mate, literally,” he said.

William J. Broad has reported on science at The Times since 1983. He is based in New York. More about William J. Broad

Explore the Animal Kingdom

A selection of quirky, intriguing and surprising discoveries about animal life..

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How did the ghoulish creatures known as anglerfish pull off the evolutionary feat that let them essentially take over the ocean’s sunless depths? It took extremely peculiar sex .

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