definition of aqua tourism

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Water tourism involves traveling to locations specifically to take part in water-based activities. Some people who do not wish to partake in water related activities embark on water tourism trips so that they can visit tourist sites that sit close to bodies of water such as lakes or oceans. Water tourists are often independent travelers, although some travel firms do organize group trips.

Ocean conditions in certain parts of the world are ideally suited to surfing and other types of water sports. People from all over the globe go on water tourism trips to Hawaii, California, Australia and other destinations that are synonymous with surfing. Many of these tourists visit these locations in order to participate in surfing while others come to these places in order to watch professional surfers compete in major competitions. Some travel firms offer package deals to surfers that include hotel accommodation and meals. Local vendors rent out surfboards and other equipment that visitors can use if they want to try their hand at wakeboarding, waterskiing or other sports.

While water tourism often involves active pursuits, some water tourists visit islands and coastal regions in order to participate in more leisurely pursuits such as diving or snorkeling. Travel operators organize tours of coral reefs and arrange for local tour guides to preside over expeditions on which travelers can swim with local marine life such as dolphins or even sharks. Some tour operators also cater to families who are primarily focused on swimming and sunbathing rather than interacting with marine life.

Water vacations sometimes involve inland destinations such as lakes and rivers. Tourists can sail or swim on lakes while many rivers are ideally suited to white water rafting. Some nations such as the United Kingdom and the Netherlands have extensive canals and water tourists can rent out boats and travel the country via the canals. Other tourists prefer to embark on shorter trips involving rented canoes or kayaks. Additionally, some leisure companies operate water parks that contain swimming pools, water slides and areas for canoeing or kayaking.

Tourists often visit well-known destinations such as major water parks, popular lakes or well renowned beach locations but some travel firms market deluxe vacations to remote regions such as islands in the South Pacific. These trips are designed for people who want to avoid major crowds and who have the financial resources to make their way to these remote destinations. In some instances, water tourists stay in traditional beachfront huts that contain luxury upgrades such as satellite television or king size beds. They can participate in a wide range of water based activities, ranging from fishing to deep sea diving.

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Aquaculture tourism: an unexpected synergy for the blue economy, efforts are underway in greece to diversify and promote aquaculture tourism to educate and shift public perceptions of fish farms.

Aquaculture and tourism may seem like separate worlds, but in select locations the two industries can find common ground. In an era where environmental sustainability and experiential travel are trending, the seemingly disparate fields of aquaculture and tourism in Greece are blending for mutual benefit.

The blue economy, which encompasses the sustainable use of ocean resources for economic growth, improved livelihoods and jobs, is gaining traction. One of its key sectors is aquaculture, which can thrive in open water thanks to stable temperatures and strong currents that disperse nutrients and reduce environmental footprint.

Meanwhile, marine tourism thrives in similar spaces also helps to drive the blue economy. The ocean offers recreational opportunities like snorkeling and diving; the pleasure of fresh local seafood has immense value; and beaches and clear seas are critical in driving tourists’ choices and spending behavior. In a nutshell, aquaculture can enhance tourism, and tourism can create the demand for farmed seafood products.

A prime example of this alliance can be seen in the open water net pens of Greece, where 65 percent of fisheries production comes from aquaculture. On the island of Rhodes, a small village on the west coast called Kameiros Skala is bringing aquaculture and tourism together.

Visitors travel to the island Strongyli, where every year Lamar S.A. raises 300 tons of sea bass ( Dicentrarchus labrax ), red sea bream ( Pagrus major ), gilthead sea bream ( Sparus aurata ) and meagre ( Argyrosomus regius ) for local markets. Together with a local scuba diving center, Lamar S.A. offers educational talks – explanations about farming practices, the necessity to grow aquaculture in Europe, the relationship between aquaculture and the environment, biodiversity and environmental protection – and opportunities to snorkel, dive and spot species such as tuna, dolphins and seals around the farm. Visitors can also swim with sea bream in a designated net pen.

“Our farm indirectly creates a unique natural ecosystem with an abundance of living organisms, and we wanted to show this to people,” Savvas Chatzinikolaou, manager at Lamar S.A. told the Advocate . “We are now sharing information not only with tourists but also with research institutions and universities.”

“The farm’s conditions are very dynamic,” said Anastasios Baltadakis, aquaculture research and development consultant at Lamar S.A. “Strong currents and waves remove waste and organic matter, producing a natural dispersing mechanism and attracting different species of fish from all trophic levels. The west coast of Rhodes is also a Natura 2000 area. This means that it’s part of a network of protected areas in the EU. Human-induced disturbances are minimal, which also explains the rich biodiversity around our farm.”

With Europe looking to increase aquaculture production and promote the synergy between aquaculture and tourism through a multi-use concept, Lamar S.A.’s excursions are a good example of how two different sectors can work together and showcase the environmental benefits of fish farming. In addition to its excursions, Lamar S.A. works with the Hellenic Centre for Marine Research  to gather data on water quality parameters around the farm. The data are incorporated into aquaculture management programs and shared for free with universities and research institutions. Parameters such as salinity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity and currents (speed and direction) are measured hourly, along with chlorophyll, phosphorus and nitrogen levels.

“Because we are small-scale, we must diversify to survive by providing services other than fish production,” said Baltadakis. “One service is the excursions. Another is accommodating student interns, offering them a better understanding of aquaculture through research. Thirdly, we share data on our farm and general marine area with universities. By offering several services, not only are we looking after our own fish production but we are also contributing to aquaculture and the marine environment as a whole. I like to describe this as a shining example of sustainability in the region. We can contribute to different fields and align with the EU’s blue growth strategy . We hope to set the blueprint for other small-scale fish farms to follow.”

Greece is also home to Kastelorizo Aquaculture S.A., which farms sea bass and sea bream near the islet of Patroklos in the Saronic Gulf. The farm works with a dive center to bring divers to the area while monitoring environmental parameters to preserve the area’s natural beauty and show that aquaculture and tourism can co-exist. A monitoring and management platform is provided by Greek telecommunications firm Wings ICT Solutions . The platform includes cameras and sensors that can help to optimize farming conditions, ensure the well-being of fish and mitigate potential risks.

“This type of multi-use between aquaculture and tourism can address negative perceptions of aquaculture by showcasing its benefits and create a positive association,” said Evangelia Lamprakopoulou at Wings ICT Solutions. “It also allows for cost minimization because equipment like ROVs and diving gear can be shared, while collaborative advertising efforts and shared costs can contribute to business development and cost optimization. It may also enhance culinary experiences and promote the consumption of farmed seafood.”

Tundi Agardy, executive director of marine conservation policy group Sound Seas in Washington D.C., agrees that exposing people to production systems like aquaculture instills in them a better understanding of where their food comes from. Tourism can also increase demand for a particular product, with higher profit margins, she said, while food for tourists that might be sourced from local fish farms can be fresher, have less environmental cost and support local livelihoods.

“Tours of the Punta Allen spiny lobster fishery in Mexico help promote the product in nearby resorts and enable it to be sold at a premium,” she said. “This is an example of a fishery, but I can imagine the same being true for small aquaculture operations that supply fish and other seafood to nearby tourist resorts. Excursions to fish farms can educate people on food production and be a form of marketing for aquaculture.”

Former participants of Lamar S.A’s excursions see the combination of aquaculture and tourism in a positive light. Professor Tohsei Ishimoto works at the Faculty of Tourism and Communities Development at Kokugakuin University in Yokohama and Tokyo, Japan. He was touched by the opportunity to learn about aquaculture and see up close a unique marine ecosystem.

“Educational tourism like this significantly enhances awareness of aquaculture and changes perspectives of the ocean and the resources it provides,” he said.

Back on Rhodes, Chatzinikolaou and Baltadakis are aiming to turn their farm into a Marine Protected Area (MPA). This can provide ecological benefits and drive the sustainable development of aquaculture and tourism, enabling them to grow together, they said, while the increasing recognition of MPAs in protecting biodiversity and sustaining livelihoods must not be overlooked.

“We will need to scientifically prove the aggregation of biomass around our farm and showcase the so-called spillover effect in which fish and other marine life aggregate and reproduce in a protected area before moving elsewhere, indirectly strengthening fisheries,” said Baltadakis. “We can illustrate this with data from our farm. We will also need to work with local stakeholders and communicate our message. It’s an effort that requires everybody to get involved, and we are willing to take the initiative and share our data and future studies for better decision-making. Furthermore, issues such as animal welfare are increasingly important for consumers, and a fish farm that is part of an MPA and open to tourists can really highlight aquaculture’s positive effects.”

Agardy agrees that combining aquaculture and tourism adds value and leads to other important steps like MPAs as well as better farm management, best practices for coastal management and the adoption of ecosystem approaches. All can create a better investment climate and a stronger base for economic development.

“The trick is to be sure that the aquaculture operator really wants to showcase their operation, and it is important that local community workers be on board,” said Agardy. “Publicity and getting stories into media are key to the development of initiatives like the excursions in Rhodes. The more examples there are, the more both tourism operators and farmers will be encouraged to come together.”

“Tourism generates additional income for aquaculture, encouraging investment and leading to improved production capacity and economic viability,” said Lamprakopoulou. “We are likely to see more examples of this, not just in Greece but also in other regions globally.”

As his next step forward, Baltadakis is aiming to explore the multi-use concept and how aquaculture and tourism play a role in MPAs or other area-based conservation measures. The ultimate goal is to demonstrate the benefits of multi-use for Rhodes as a whole.

“Areas like co-existence or marine spatial planning require multiple disciplines from social and environmental studies to aquaculture and our farm has much to offer,” he said. “We have the financial and human capital to be at the forefront.”

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Bonnie Waycott

Correspondent Bonnie Waycott became interested in marine life after learning to snorkel on the Sea of Japan coast near her mother’s hometown. She specializes in aquaculture and fisheries with a particular focus on Japan, and has a keen interest in Tohoku’s aquaculture recovery following the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami.

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Exploring Effective Strategies for Africa’s Aqua-Tourism Development

The oceans, seas, rivers, and lakes that make up the vast aquatic and marine resources found on the African continent have the potential to expand the aqua-tourism economy in Africa. The continent is home to over 38 coastline states and several island nations, including Madagascar, Cape Verde, Sao Tomé and Principe, the Seychelles, Mauritius, and the Comoros. Small Island States ( SIDs ), which are particularly vulnerable to climate change and severe weather events, are included in this group of island nations. The huge oceanic regions covered by the coastline and island states of Africa total over 13 million km2. These bodies of water and wetlands have significant strategic value for the continent and offer prospects for offshore oil and gas energy mobilisation, coastal tourism, shipping, fishing, aquaculture, and other blue economy-related industries. This article will discuss possible ways to boost aquatourism in Africa, highlighting the challenges and ways to counter them for a rise in African aquatourism .

The Sustainable Blue Economy Conference, held in Nairobi, Kenya, in November 2018, revealed the prospects and difficulties facing the global aqua economy, not the least of which is Africa. The Nairobi Conference revealed and made clear the difficulties associated with advancing the creation of a sustainable blue economy, which provided inspiration for the proliferation of current projects in Africa and around the world. Following the Nairobi Conference, Africa’s leaders made a commitment to creating Africa’s Aqua Tourism Economy Strategy. This commitment was justified by the need to create a framework that would serve as a guide or reference for African Union member states, regional economic communities ( RECs ), and other regional organisations as they developed national and regional blue economy strategies.

In cognizance of the above assertion, Prof. Ahmed El- Sawalhy , the Director/Head of Mission, AU-IBAR, opined that “the movement to harness and use all of the oceans’, seas’, rivers’, and lakes’ potential resources for the socioeconomic liberation of Africa is gaining steam. The Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea, and Mediterranean Sea are only a few of the very productive oceanic and sea habitats that are close to the continent. By utilising the potential for increasing ocean productivity, job creation, bolstering food and nutritional security, wealth creation opportunities, and environmental sustainability towards sustainable aquatourism development, these aquatic ecosystems offer the African Union member states a wealth of opportunities to participate in the sustainable ocean economy.”

Africa’s rich tapestry of aquatic biodiversity, beautiful coastlines, and cultural legacy can all be discovered through aquatourism , which poses as a subdivision of the travel and tourism sector. Africa is a chief location for water-based tourism because it has an abundance of natural resources, including pristine beaches and a variety of marine life. Aquatourism in Africa still has a lot of untapped potential and a number of difficulties. Below are the challenges and possible strategies for boosting aquatourism in Africa.

Enriched Information and Signage Centres

It is therefore pertinent to connect clear signage along coastlines and create an information centre to give tourists who are interested in aqua tourism or lovers of aqua tourism a piece of vivid information about local attractions, safety precautions, and environmental conservation efforts. This is because one of the drawbacks of aqua tourism is the lack of clear directions and information for tourists in coastal areas when they visit.

A Low Cost for Water Sports Activities

The cost of participating in water activities has been expensive, and this makes it difficult for tourists to participate. It is important to involve the local businesses to provide cheap water sports packages for kayaking, scuba diving, and snorkeling . This will make these activities available to a wider variety of tourists.

Infrastructural Development (Increasing Accommodations, Amenities, and Connectivity to Transportation)

The problems associated with aquatourism in many African nations involve poor port and marina infrastructure, which has restricted voyage travel and water-based activities; inadequate lodging alternatives, particularly in isolated seaside areas; and limited connectivity between coastal locations and transportation hubs.

The strategies here would be to handle larger containers and provide necessary amenities for tourists. The government and the business sector should invest in renovating ports and marinas. also encourages the creation of environmentally conscious resorts and lodges and the development of a variety of lodging options to accommodate various price ranges. There should be expanded and upgraded road and rail networks to guarantee easy access to coastal areas. Promoting affordable air travel options to coastal regions

Embrace culinary travel.

The tourists may have little or no knowledge of African local cuisine, so it is necessary as a strategy to boost African culinary tourism by urging eateries and sellers to provide a variety of traditional and regional seafood dishes, giving visitors a distinctive gastronomic experience while engaging in aquatourism .

Conservation of the Environment

These include marine conservation efforts, waste management, and monitoring of water quality.

Environmental corrosion and overfishing pose a problem for aquatic habitats; negligence in trash management damages coastal ecosystems; and pollution reduces water quality, which might turn away tourists interest in African aquatourism .

However, it will be wise to inaugurate marine protected areas and enforce rigorous laws to safeguard marine life, encourage sustainable fishing methods, embolden ethical travel by promoting recycling, waste minimization, and public awareness programmes, and ensure consistent water quality monitoring, strict rules, and partnerships with environmental organisations to improve water quality.

Commitment to the community

This captures local empowerment, cultural preservation, education, and information.

So many local communities don’t actually profit from aquatourism . Traditional cultures are vanishing due to tourism activities, and local communities don’t fully grasp the benefits of aquatourism , therefore making it difficult to educate, inspire, and welcome aqua tourists.

Strategies that need to be included in boosting aquatourism in African local communities involve offering education, job possibilities, and a cut of the money made through tourism-related activities. Certifying observance of regional norms while promoting cultural preservation through programmes like cultural tours and historical centres and creating workshops, educational initiatives, and awareness-raising efforts to educate locals about the advantages of sustainable aqua-tourism.

Promotional and marketing

This entails destination marketing and branding, collaboration with tour operators, and an online presence.

A notable challenge faced is that few people are aware of African destinations for aquatourism , there is little cooperation between international tour operators and African destinations, and African aquatourism destinations have a small online presence.

In boosting African aquatic tourism and experiences, it is important to showcase a marketing plan so that influencers and foreign travel agencies are partnered, engaging digital marketing to reach a worldwide audience while building and maintaining educational websites, active social media platforms, and the formation of associations with tour companies to have them include African places for aquatourism in their packages and itineraries.

Online Booking and Mobile Apps

The development of mobile applications and user-friendly websites that offer details, booking possibilities, and real-time updates on the weather, tides, and safety precautions for activities involving water is vital to African aquatourism . This is because the means of accessing information and making reservations are most often difficult.

It is a complex job to boost aquatourism in Africa. Therefore, the government and cooperation between the public and corporate sectors, as well as local communities and environmental groups, are tasked with ensuring that aquatourism blossoms in Africa. However, with the above- mentioned strategies, we can all work together to enhance aquatourism on the continent for turbulent growth and development.

aquatourism

English [ edit ], etymology [ edit ].

aqua- +‎ tourism

Noun [ edit ]

aquatourism ( uncountable )

• ( rare ) Tourism for the purpose of water -based activities such as sailing and diving .

• English terms prefixed with aqua-
• English lemmas
• English nouns
• English uncountable nouns
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Nautical Tourism

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Nautical tourism’s main motivation centers around aquatic and subaquatic activities in seas, rivers, lakes, or other such environments for leisure or sport purposes. Studies do not agree on a definition of nautical tourism and find difficulties in distinguishing it from maritime or marine tourism (Martínez Vázquez et al. 2021 ). But it can be defined as holiday engagements allowing various water activities, combining the practice of nautical activities with the enjoyment of nature facilitated by tourism supply of coastal regions.

There are two main categories of nautical tourism: cruise tourism and nautical-sports tourism. The latter includes navigation activities on boats or yacht charters including privately owned vessels (Alcover et al. 2011 ). However, some studies consider cruise tourism separately because there is no direct relationship between the tourist and the sea (Martínez Vázquez et al. 2021 ), and the cruise is just the means of transport for the purpose of pleasure and...

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Alcover, A., M. Alemany, M. Jacob, M. Payeras, A. García, and L. Martínez-Ribes. 2011. The economic impact of yacht charter tourism on the Balearic economy. Tourism Economics 17: 625–638.

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Hall, C.-M. 2001. Trends in ocean and coastal tourism: The end of the last frontier? Ocean and Coastal Management 44: 601–618.

Martínez Vázquez, R., J. Milán García, and J. De Pablo Valenciano. 2021. Analysis and trends of global research on nautical, maritime and marine tourism. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 9: 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse9010093 .

Orams, M. 1999. Marine tourism development, impacts and management . London: Routledge.

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Jacob, M., Florido, C. (2021). Nautical Tourism. In: Jafari, J., Xiao, H. (eds) Encyclopedia of Tourism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01669-6_134-2

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Kottayam’s trademark backwater stretches and pristine paddy fields have won over traveller’s hearts for centuries. Its lush landscape is adorned by many a picturesque picnic spot and one need travel no far to find a place to simply sit and relax in the loving embrace of nature. Surrounded by the majestic Western Ghats on the East, the mighty Vembanad Lake and Kuttanad’s rustic paddy fields on the West, Kottayam boasts of many an option for aqua tourists. You will find many quaint rivulets interspersed around the area. A majority of them empty into Vembanad Lake, where boating and fishing are added incentives to the simply stunning visuals on display there. A cruise here will help you come across the rare avian life on display at the legendary Kumarakom Bird Sanctuary with its Siberian Storks, egrets, darters, herons and teals eagerly awaiting you.

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Healthy Water-Based Tourism Experiences: Their Contribution to Quality of Life, Satisfaction and Loyalty

Ana maría campón-cerro.

1 Department of Business Management and Sociology, School of Business Studies and Tourism, University of Extremadura, Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10071 Cáceres, Spain; se.xenu@zedrehmj

Elide Di-Clemente

2 Department of Business Management and Sociology, Research Institutes, LAB 0L3, University of Extremadura, Avda. de las Ciencias s/n, 10004 Cáceres, Spain; se.xenu@etnemelcide

José Manuel Hernández-Mogollón

José antonio folgado-fernández.

3 Department of Financial Economics and Accounting, School of Business Studies and Tourism, University of Extremadura Avda. de la Universidad s/n, 10071 Cáceres, Spain; se.xenu@odaglofaj

The scientific literature on tourism identifies two driving trends: the quest for experientiality and the growing connection between holidays and quality of life. The present research focuses on water-based activities practiced with a healthy purpose, capable of driving positive economic, social and environmental effects on the territory where this type of tourism is developed. Considering the growing demand of experiential tourism, it is important to assess the experiential value of these practices and their impact on the quality of life, satisfaction and loyalty. A sample of 184 customers of thermal spas and similar establishments was used to test the structural model proposed, employing the partial least squares technique. The results show the experiential value of healthy water-based activities and confirm their positive impact on the individuals’ quality of life, satisfaction and loyalty towards both the experience and the destination.

1. Introduction

The tourism industry is undergoing a substantial change. The advance in new technologies and a skilled and demanding consumer target means that the organisations and destinations need new marketing and management tools to meet the modern tourists’ expectations and the industry’s requirements for innovation [ 1 ].

The scientific literature on tourism issues identifies two driving trends: the quest for experientiality and the growing connection existing between holidaymaking and perceived improvements in individuals’ quality of life. The former is forcing the tourism sector to face a new competitive scenario. Increasing importance is being given to the emotional value of the tourism experiences offered, leaving in the background their functional properties [ 2 ]. The latter is a facet of the tourism phenomenon which is gaining momentum in recent times. Tourism literature has shown a growing consensus about the benefits that individuals can get from tourism experiences and meaningful travel [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ].

In this new experiential stream, tourism businesses face the challenge of changing their business and commercial strategies and improving the affective components of their products, that is, being able to deliver pleasant sensations and memories to the consumer, as well as ensuring the practical functionality of the goods/services offered [ 7 ]. The functional qualities of a tourism proposal are no longer considered differentiators and are not enough to capture the attention and the preferences of consumers.

Considering the preceding, the tourism industry is in need of drawing innovative tourism proposals in line with the recent requirements of modern tourists who see in holidaymaking a possible avenue to pursue happiness [ 8 ]. However, still very little is known about how tourism contributes to quality of life and whether some specific practices are more suitable than others to turn holidays into significant enhancers of personal happiness [ 9 ].

According to Nawijn [ 10 ], ‘in the light of the experience economy’ (p. 560), the tourism industry could improve its performance and foster the effect that holidays have on happiness, giving more attention to the experiential content of the tourism offered, and thus, understanding what causes happiness. The author realises that certain types of holidays are worth further examination to this extent, as they show the potential to positively impact tourists’ happiness. The ones he suggests are wellness tourism, promulgating physical and psychological recovery, or slow tourism, suggesting people should travel with slower means of transport in order to enjoy the trip and experience relaxed rhythms. Based on this consideration, the present research focuses on water-related activities practiced with a healthy purpose, that besides their experiential potential due to the sensorial properties of water (unique touch, sounds, flavours, colours, cold or hot feelings, etc.), accomplish the objective of preserving water resources and ecosystems from contamination, which is often the case of the touristic use of water [ 11 , 12 ]. In fact, natural water resources, such as rivers, lakes, streams, wetlands, aquifers and estuaries, are often jeopardised by people’s use, forcing a change in water policies and management [ 13 ].

Water is for sure a resource with an inestimable environmental value, which unfortunately is not sufficient to preserve it from misuses. Draper [ 14 ] points out that a wise management of water resources needs a commitment with a dynamic economy, social equity and healthy environment. Even if tourism is traditionally considered a water-consuming industry whose impact on its conservation is usually assessed to be more negative than positive, it is possible to encourage a proper and sustainable tourism use of water resources.

Tourism can contribute to this objective by means of giving to intangible water heritages a tangible value, that is, an economic (besides environmental) value in order to save it and its connected water-based ecosystems and biodiversity from destruction. Water-based experiences are potential solutions to preserve both the environmental and the economic value of water, and its tangible and intangible heritage [ 15 ]. However, Essex et al. [ 16 ] claim that ‘there is little research on the significance of water in tourism development’ (p. 6). In the same line, Jennings [ 17 ] maintains that the theme of water-based experiences in tourism has been little explored. Therefore, this work turns the spotlight onto tourism experiences based on water natural resources and settings with the aim of exploring their touristic value within the new experiential context.

Luo et al. [ 18 ] assert that experience economy research has not focused on the customer experience in wellness tourism, and also claim that it is relevant to understand how visitors achieve a bettering of their quality of life through this type of tourism.

The most renowned water-based activities related to health are the visits to thermal spas and similar establishments (spas, Arab baths, etc.) [ 17 ]. However, there are other activities that involve water as a key element, and these are the enjoyment of landscapes and soundscapes related to water, visiting fluvial beaches, trekking through routes with water resources, enjoying river boat trips and watching aquatic birds. Moreover, drinking mineral and medicinal waters provides significant benefits for human health. Restaurants have begun offering a water menu along with the wine menu. The recent concern about health and wellbeing that characterises modern society involves water as a functional element, where a conscious consumption can enhance personal wellness. This trend contributes to generating a new ‘water culture’ [ 19 ] that can lead to the development of innovative initiatives in the tourism sector, addressed to those consumers who will benefit from water properties in places where this element is a central attraction. The rise of a new ‘water culture’ can have beneficial effects on both individuals’ health and on tourism destinations’ economies.

Therefore, it is important to assess the potential of these tourism experiences linked to water and health and their impact on outcome variables such as the tourists’ satisfaction, loyalty and quality of life. Water-based experiences can generate long-term revenue, driving positive behavioural intentions. The main objective of this research is to analyse water-based tourism experiences as a strategy capable of fostering the tourists’ satisfaction, quality of life, and positive future behaviours. As a consequence, water-based experiences could be assumed as capable of enhancing the economic, social and environmental sustainability of a destination where singular hydrographical resources are placed. This work tries to assess tourism activities based on binomial water-health through the experience model proposed by Pine and Gilmore [ 20 ]. This is an original contribution to tourism research as it is the first attempt: (1) to obtain an integrative perspective about the phenomenon of tourism experiences based on water and health; (2) to offer new ideas for tourism products development using water in a non-consumptive way, in line with the modern tourists’ demand of experientiality and wellbeing; (3) to test whether water-based activities accomplish the objective of enhancing individuals’ quality of life which, in turn, can contribute to driving tourists’ loyal behaviours.

The results achieved offer insightful ideas for the elaboration of new experiential proposals and show marketers and practitioners the most suitable actions to undertake in order to satisfy current tourism demand, expecting travel to be a changing and once-in-a-lifetime experience, using water as a tourism attraction from an environmentally respectful perspective.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. experiential tourism: the experience and its dimensions.

The theoretical background that supports the hypotheses’ definition and operationalization of the concepts involved in this research has to be seen in the theory of experience economy and its application in the tourism industry. The rise of the experiential trend in modern economies is nowadays bringing the hospitality and tourism sector into a new competitive stage. New technological advances and the easy access to information have meant that those elements traditionally designed to differentiate what is being offered in the market can be easily replicated by competitors, nullifying their differential power and making them interchangeable in consumers’ eyes [ 21 ]. According to Jensen and Prebensen [ 22 ], experience-based tourism can be considered an offer that differentiates itself from more conventional tourism practices due to its intangible and emotional value which is what modern tourists seek and appreciate most in their holiday time. Therefore, the tourism industry faces the challenge of turning its proposals into experiences and providing what is currently being offered with a new emotional and intangible value in order to identify new competitive advantages [ 23 ].

Water and tourism have traditionally been studied from two different focal points: the environmental concern, as tourism activities are water-consuming and polluting practices [ 11 ]; and the health and wellness perspective, with a specific reference to thermal and spa activities [ 24 , 25 ]. This work considers the water-tourism connections under this second approach and highlights the experiential value of water-related tourism practices.

Health and wellness tourism has recently been a focus of attraction in tourism research as, nowadays, people are particularly sensitive to safeguarding their personal wellness and conducting a healthy lifestyle [ 3 ]. As a consequence, the concept of health has widened its boundaries, being a synonym for happiness, wellbeing and long life, and more than just the absence of diseases [ 25 ]. This new social consciousness introduces some changes regarding tourists’ decisions and preferences and offers some new opportunities for tourism destinations’ management and innovation.

Besides rest and relaxation, physical and psychological recovery, modern tourists have an expectation of personal enrichment in their holidays [ 26 ]. In this line, experiential travel and healthy practices may provide benefits to tourists beyond satisfaction and enjoyment [ 4 ], contributing to enhancing their perception of personal quality of life [ 8 , 9 ].

Pine and Gilmore [ 20 ] made the most significant contribution to the definition of the experience concept. The authors developed a conceptual model defining experiences which has been largely applied to assessing experientiality in different tourism contexts [ 27 , 28 , 29 ]. The authors describe experiences by means of two dimensions: participation and connection, embedded in a spectrum from passive to active, and from absorption to immersion. The participation implies that consumers are impacted by the experience, while the connection dimension assesses the degree to which the tourists themselves impact the experience, contributing to its creation [ 20 ]. The intersection of these two dimensions gives birth to four realms defining the experience concept, also known as the 4Es’ model, as its components are entertainment, education, esthetics and escape.

The water-related activities considered in this research have a high experiential potential. At a conceptual level they fit the model proposed by Pine and Gilmore [ 20 ]. With regard to the ‘escape’ component, these activities are often held in outstanding natural settings which induce the feeling of escaping from the daily contexts. The physical contact with water has a relaxing power due to the feeling of the lack of body weight perceived while immersed. Therefore, tourists who decide to practice these activities have, in water, an effective vehicle to escape from stress and routine. The ‘esthetics’ dimension is provided by the beauty of the landscapes related to water. Healthy water-related activities are ‘educational’ as tourists who choose these practices can learn about the beneficial properties of water for human health and differentiate between the kinds of waters and the effects of its uses. Finally, water-based experiences provide ‘entertainment’ with activities such as observing landscapes, the contemplation of sounds and the colours of water, and the enjoyment of baths and water-treatments.

2.2. Variables and Hypotheses Definition

2.2.1. experiential satisfaction.

According to Kim et al. [ 30 ], research on travel and tourism has largely examined the tourists’ satisfaction concept. Similarly, Neal and Gursoy [ 31 ] assert that customer satisfaction is frequently examined for being a topic capable of enhancing the destination’s competitiveness by means of inducing loyal behaviors and intentions of revisiting the destination in the future [ 32 ].

The new experiential push that pervaded the tourism industry, as well as the whole modern economy, entailed some changes in the treatment of satisfaction. This variable has been traditionally considered to be predicted by functional factors (i.e., quality, value and image) [ 30 , 33 ]. However, few researches offer useful insights demonstrating that new affective and emotional concepts, such as pleasure, arousal, joy, love, positive surprise, mood and hedonics, are gradually integrating [ 7 , 34 , 35 ] or even substituting the traditional utility-based approach to satisfaction [ 7 , 36 , 37 ]. Satisfaction is considered a key driver for customer experience assessment [ 38 ].

Scientific literature provides numerous evidences supporting the relationship between emotions and satisfaction [ 36 ] and shows that a growing consensus exists on the need to incorporate emotional and affective components in the assessment of this variable [ 39 ]. Lin and Kuo [ 40 ] found proof of the relationship between tourist experience and satisfaction. Agyeiwaah et al. [ 41 ] demonstrate the relationship in the context of culinary tourism, Ali et al. [ 42 ] in creative tourism, and more specifically, Luo et al. [ 18 ] in wellness tourism experiences.

According to Pine and Gilmore [ 43 ] the 4Es’ model leads to satisfaction. Some researchers have already tested the relationship between the experience concept and satisfaction. Oh et al. [ 29 ] found significant evidence linking the esthetic component of the experience and satisfaction. Similarly, Hosany and Witham [ 28 ] demonstrated that esthetics and entertainment significantly contribute to satisfaction. Quadri-Felitti and Fiore [ 27 ] empirically showed the positive relationship between education and esthetics on satisfaction. Considering the preceding, the following hypothesis is proposed:

Healthy water-based experiences have a positive impact on tourists’ experiential satisfaction.

2.2.2. Quality of Life

Holidays are generally considered events that increase wellbeing and quality of life [ 44 ]. Research on quality of life regarding the tourism experience is an emerging area of study, considered as an important field of tourism studies because of its relationship with short-term and long-term effects on individuals, on businesses, and on society [ 38 ]. According to Luo et al. [ 18 ] since the past decade, wellness tourism has been a booming industry, making it relevant to understand how visitors achieve quality of life through the wellness experience, in which healthy water-based tourism experiences has to be included.

Connections between tourism and quality of life have started to be explored and have recently become a focus in tourism studies [ 45 ]. Many authors started to test the potential relationship that exists between tourism experiences, travellers’ satisfaction and tourists’ happiness [ 3 , 8 , 9 , 46 , 47 ]. Gilbert and Abdullah [ 48 ] suggest that holidaymaking can improve the level of happiness experienced by tourists. Similarly, Puczkó and Smith [ 49 ] define holidays as ‘a state of temporary happiness’ (p. 265) associated with some specific activities and behaviours that people have while on holidays.

Neal et al. [ 46 ] in their study on vacation experience and quality of life showed that satisfaction with tourism services is a positive determinant of overall quality of life. More specifically, within the experiential context, Kim et al. [ 26 ] confirms that a strong relationship links satisfaction with a travel experience together with the individuals’ perception of their overall quality of life. Luo et al. [ 18 ] found that in wellness tourism visitors’ satisfaction with experiences predict quality of life. This supports the following hypothesis:

Experience satisfaction has a positive impact on tourists’ quality of life.

2.2.3. Loyalty

Loyalty is a traditional marketing outcome where the importance has been increasingly recognised in tourism and hospitality research [ 50 ]. Satisfaction is often considered a significant determinant of loyalty and future behaviour intentions [ 51 , 52 ]. It could be thought that providing satisfying experiences will possibly drive loyal behaviours in the future, which usually coincides with positive word-of-mouth and revisiting intentions. However, the tourism market is in constant change and new trends in consumers’ desires and needs bring tourism marketing to face ever-new challenges that make it more difficult for the plain satisfaction-loyalty binomial to remain effective. Kim and Ritchie [ 53 ] maintain that satisfaction alone is no longer enough to drive positive future behaviours, as researches have noted that more than the 60% of satisfied costumers decide to switch to another firm. Thus, it has to be recognized that, in order for satisfaction to effectively result in loyal intentions, some other components should intervene.

Experientiality is challenging the traditional idea of loyalty [ 54 , 55 ]. The tourists’ search for unique experiences and wanderlust are forcing a reassessment of the concept in light of new experientiality. In this context, loyalty should be, on one hand, addressed towards new experience-related objects, rather than the destination (i.e., the kind of experience itself), and on the other, new antecedents should be involved in the loyalty-forming process (i.e., quality of life). As a consequence, this research considers loyalty towards two objects: the destination and the water-based experiences. In addition, quality of life is introduced in the conceptual model as an antecedent of both variables considered for loyalty.

Within the experiential literature, some studies confirm that experiential satisfaction is a direct antecedent of behavioural intentions [ 56 , 57 , 58 ] and that quality of life, or similar concepts, is a new antecedent of loyalty [ 26 , 54 , 59 ].

Literature points out that positive tourism experiences could enhance repeat visits and recommendations [ 41 ]. Wu and colleagues [ 56 , 57 , 58 ] provide empirical evidences supporting the theoretical relationship that links the experiential satisfaction with loyalty. The authors in their studies on theme parks [ 58 ], the golf industry [ 56 ] and heritage tourism [ 57 ] confirm that experiential satisfaction leads to loyal behaviours in the future. Other authors in other tourism contexts verified that relationship [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. These results offer a valuable support to the following hypotheses:

Experiential satisfaction has a positive impact on loyalty to the experience.

Experiential satisfaction has a positive impact on loyalty to the destination.

With regard to the consideration of quality of life as a direct antecedent of loyalty, some valuable insights can be found in Kim et al. [ 26 ], Lin [ 54 ] and Kim et al. [ 59 ].

Kim et al. [ 59 ], in their study on chain restaurants, confirm that consumers’ wellbeing perceptions are the most powerful antecedents of future positive behaviours. Lin [ 54 ] shows that cuisine experiences and psychological wellbeing are important determinants of revisit intentions. Kim et al. [ 26 ], following a structural path starting from elderly tourists’ involvement in tourism experiences and resulting in revisiting intentions, showed how satisfaction and quality of life contribute to determine the tourists desire to revisit the destination. Their results confirm that quality of life is an effective predictor of loyal behaviours. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:

Quality of life has a positive impact on loyalty to the experience.

Quality of life has a positive impact on loyalty to the destination.

The hypothesized relationships are graphically presented in Figure 1 .

Theoretical model.

3. Methodology

The study setting is the region of Extremadura, a southwest region of Spain, where water has been traditionally seen as an abundant resource. However, growing irrigation demands under a low price are outstripping the supply of raw water and competing with other uses [ 60 ], a challenge that could be faced with sustainable tourism practices. The region relies on more than 1500 kilometres of inland water, more than 60 natural-based bath areas and 7 thermal spas, according to the Touristic Plan of Extremadura 2017–2020 promoted by the Government of Extremadura. The data shapes the region as a destination to enjoy diverse tourism water experiences, and thus an excellent place to locate this study.

This research relied on an exploratory study using quantitative methodology to evaluate the proposed model through analyses based on structural equation modelling (SEM), due to its capacity to test several relationships established in a model that emerges from theory [ 61 ].

The population was identified in customers of thermal spas of Extremadura and other similar establishments. The tool used for data collection was a self-administered paper-based survey, complemented with an online survey.

The scales used to measure the variables of the model were validated in previous studies and have been adapted to the context of this research (see Table 1 ).

Scales used.

The questionnaire used multi-item scales rather than one-item scales, as suggested by MacKenzie et al. [ 63 ]. The indicators were measured on a five-point Likert scale.

The questionnaire was distributed to the customers enjoying thermal spa visits and other similar water-based experiences in Extremadura. The dissemination of the questionnaires was conducted using two procedures: a paper-based questionnaire in thermal establishments and an online questionnaire. To ensure that no biases were introduced in data analysis due to the use of two collecting procedures, a t-test for independent samples was performed. The results confirm the equality of means between the two groups of data. Only 2 out of 32 indicators showed statistically significant differences, thus the potential bias was minimal and can be assumed. The two subsamples have been unified for the model assessment.

A total of 184 completed questionnaires were collected between 3th of November and 24th of December of 2017, using a non-probability convenience sampling. The sample size is suitable as it accomplishes the criterion proposed by Hair et al. [ 64 ], who propose a minimum value for the item-response ratio between 1:5 and 1:10.

Following Hair et al.’s [ 61 ] guidelines, the partial least square (PLS) technique was considered the most appropriate method for the assessment of the hypothesised model versus models based on covariances, considering that it contains a second-order construct (experience) and reflective and formative indicators, thus a complex model structure. It is also appropriate for relatively small samples, as in this study. In addition, the PLS algorithm transforms non-normal data, so results are robust to the condition of normality [ 65 ]. The SmartPLS 2.0 M3 software (SmartPLS GmbH, Hamburg, Germany) was employed for the model evaluation, while the descriptive analysis and the collinearity test were performed with IBM SPSS Statistics, Version 22 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, USA)

4.1. Sample Profile

The sample was composed of 37.0% men and 57.6% women. Within this research, the tourists visiting thermal spas in Extremadura (Spain) came from other Spanish regions (56.7%), had a mature age (59.8% were ‘more than 55 years old’) and a high education level (36.4%) (see Table 2 ).

Socio-demographic sample profile ( n = 184).

Regarding the frequency that this sample engages in tourism experiences linked to the binomial water-health, 34.2% asserts that they only ‘sometimes’ practice this kind of activity, and 31.0% said ‘frequently’. This result points out that the users of thermal spas surveyed are loyal to tourism water-related experiences. With respect to the interest that respondents have in water-based experiences, the most valued one was ‘visiting health spas’ (3.87 out of 5 points), followed by ‘observing landscapes related to water’ (3.68), ‘visiting fluvial beaches’ (3.41) and ‘trekking routes related to water’ (3.35). It is important to highlight that the other rated activities, which were ‘visiting spas’, ‘river boat trips’, ‘watching aquatic birds’ and ‘asking for water menus in a restaurant’ have achieved a mean over 2.5. Respondents recognise the benefit that water-based tourism experiences have on health, considering the high scores registered by this indicator (4.24 out of 5). The sample also confirms a high interest in including water-based experiences in their trips (4.01). Hence, these activities reckon with the potential of a latent tourism demand. In addition, respondents appreciate water-based tourism experiences as potential enhancers of personal health (4.01) (see Table 3 ).

Opinion about water-based experiences.

4.2. Analysis of The Model

4.2.1. measurement model assessment.

Since the proposed model is multidimensional, the two-stage approach was selected for its assessment [ 66 ]. In order to perform the model assessment, this study followed the guidelines proposed by Wright et al. [ 67 ]. Following MacKenzie et al.’s indications [ 63 ], the constructs taken into account in the first step were considered reflective. Consequently, the measurement model was evaluated to assess the items’ reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity and discriminant validity [ 61 ]. Regarding individual reliability, all the indicators are above the acceptable threshold of 0.707 [ 61 , 68 ]. Construct reliability was measured through composite reliability (CR). According to Nunnally and Bernstein [ 69 ], the values obtained in this study are acceptable, being in the range of 0.60–0.70 (see Table 4 ).

Descriptive statistics and measurement model assessment: reflective indicators (I).

Note: a Critical t -values: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; ns not significant (based on t (4999), one-tailed test); t (0.05; 4999) = 1.645; t (0.01; 4999) = 2.327; t (0.001; 4999) = 3.092. b Composite reliability. c Average variance extracted.

With regard to convergent validity, the average variance extracted (AVE) is above 0.50, so all the constructs fall into the adequate parameters according to Hair et al. [ 61 ] (see Table 4 ). Discriminant validity is confirmed when the correlations between the constructs are lower than the square root of the AVE (values in bold in Table 5 ) [ 68 ].

Discriminant validity assessment (I).

a Quality of life. b Educational. c Entertainment. d Esthetics. e Escape. f Destination loyalty. g Experience loyalty. h Experience Satisfaction.

The scores resulting from the first step can now be used for the second step in order to model the second-order construct (experience). The aggregated scores, calculated by PLS for the experience construct, generate a new set of data to be used in the following analysis. The model shows a novel nomological structure, including reflective and formative variables, that needs to be assessed in its measurement and structural validity. The experience construct now acts as formative [ 63 ]. Moreover, the dimensionality of experience, proposed by Pine and Gilmore [ 20 ], has been widely confirmed in previous research and this is assumed to be further evidence supporting the formative nature of the construct.

The reflective measurement model was analysed by repeating the steps described above. The analysis of items’ reliability, CR and AVE revealed a satisfactory evaluation (see Table 6 ).

Measurement model assessment: reflective indicators (II).

Table 7 shows that discriminant validity is demonstrated.

Discriminant validity assessment (II).

a Quality of life. b Destination loyalty. c Experience loyalty. d Experience Satisfaction.

The evaluation of a formative measurement model required an examination of any possible multicollinearity between the indicators, an assessment of the weight of each indicator and a review of their significance. For all the indicators, the variance inflation factor (VIF) was below 5 [ 61 ]. Therefore, no problem was found with multicollinearity between the indicators of the experience construct. The weights of the indicators entertainment and escape are statistically significant. However, the weights of the indicators educational and escape are not significant. Nevertheless, some authors recommend maintaining the items, as long as their loadings are statistically significant, at a confidence level of 99%, and absence of multicollinearity is assured [ 70 ] (see Table 8 ).

Collinearity statistics and analysis of formative indicators.

a Variance inflation factor. b Critical t -values: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; ns not significant (based on t (4999), two-tailed test); t (0.05; 4999) = 1.65; t (0.01; 4999) = 1.96; t (0.001; 4999) = 2.58. c Educational. d Entertainment. e Esthetics. f Escape.

4.2.2. Structural Model Assessment

R 2 of each dependent construct needs to be analysed, as well as the paths’ significance, by using the bootstrapping method [ 61 ]. Table 7 shows the R 2 values for the endogenous variables. The best explained variable is experience loyalty (67.1% or substantial-moderate), followed by destination loyalty (64.7% or substantial-moderate), experience satisfaction (51.9% or moderate) and, finally, quality of life (46.0% or moderate). This table also shows how much the predictive variables contribute to the explained variance of the endogenous variables [ 71 ]. The analysis of the structural paths’ significance was done with the bootstrapping method, following Hair et al.’s [ 61 ] guidelines. All the hypotheses are statistically significant (see Table 9 ).

Effects on endogenous variables and structural model results.

Notes: a R 2 value of 0.75, 0.5 or 0.25 for the latent endogenous variables in structural models can be considered substantial, moderate or weak, respectively [ 61 ]. b Critical t -values: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001; ns not significant (based on t (4999), one-tailed test); t (0.05; 4999) = 1.645; t (0.01; 4999) = 2.327; t (0.001; 4999) = 3.092.

Figure 2 graphically presents the results of the measurement and structural model assessment.

Graphical summary of the model assessment. * ENT: Entertainment. EDU: Educational. ESC: Escape. EST: Esthetics. EXP: Experience. ESA: Experience Satisfaction. QOL: Quality of life. ELO: Experience loyalty. DLO: Destination loyalty.

5. Discussion

The model proposed in this study provides a better comprehension of the impact of healthy water-based tourism experiences in perceived quality of life, satisfaction and loyalty. It has been empirically validated supporting all the model hypotheses established from the literature review. Thus, the results show the importance of offering experiential value with tourism products in the context of tourism experiences based on water and health. The model offers a substantial-moderate capacity to explain the variation of the endogenous variables, which are experience satisfaction (R 2 = 51.9%), quality of life (R 2 = 46.0%), experience loyalty (R 2 = 67.1%) and destination loyalty (R 2 = 64.7%). It is worth noting the role of experience satisfaction in determining experience loyalty (42.4%) and destination loyalty (56.4%). The positive relationship between satisfaction and loyalty has been largely confirmed in scientific literature [ 51 , 52 ] and it is further proven in the context of healthy water-based tourism experiences.

It is important to highlight the positive impact that the experience variable exerts on experience satisfaction (β = 0.720 ***) (H1+). This result is consistent with past research [ 40 , 41 , 42 , 43 ], and more specifically with Luo et al.’s [ 18 ] research that verified the relationship between wellness tourism experience and satisfaction.

An assessment of the dimensionality of the experience reveals that entertainment and esthetics are the most determining factors of the construct. This result is closely related to the outcomes reached by Oh et al. [ 29 ] and Hosany and Witham [ 28 ] who found a key role of these components versus education and escape. Similarly, Quadri-Felitti and Fiore [ 27 ] identified the impact of esthetic on satisfaction. According to Oh et al. [ 29 ], these findings suggest the relative importance of the four realms of the experience proposed by Pine and Gilmore [ 20 ] depending on the study context. The results of this research, showing the remarkable relevance of the entertainment and esthetics dimensions, is reasonable if considering that baths and water treatments are enjoyable practices and that water with its shapes, sounds, movements and colours embellishes outdoor and indoor spaces.

The education and escape dimensions turned out to be of lower importance. Regarding the former, an explanation exists that can be found in the low consciousness about the properties that water has on human health, and a general lack of ‘water culture’. The latter can be explained by the therapeutic focus of many thermal spas and similar establishments. This can introduce the feeling of being involved in medical practices to address health problems or ailments more than in pleasant activities capable of taking tourists away from daily problems and worries. This may suggest the importance of complementing the traditional thermal spas’ offerings with new proposals related with the enjoyment of water and more focus on wellbeing rather than on health. In short, education and escape may become more important dimensions when a water culture has gained force.

Even if statistics do not fully support the role of education and escape as determining factors of the experience construct as their weights turned out to be non-significant, they still make a contribution to the definition of the experience variable according to their loadings’ scores (see Table 6 ). Therefore, they cannot be disregarded.

Regarding the link between experience satisfaction and the individual’s quality of life (H2+), the findings of this study are consistent with the ones obtained by Neal et al. [ 46 ] and Kim et al. [ 26 ]. The results also confirm the strength of this relationship (β = 0.678 ***), concluding that healthy tourism water-based experiences are effective enhancers of quality of life.

In line with Neal et al. [ 46 ], this research supports the idea that the tourism industry provides ‘experiences that offer enduring types of satisfaction that positively impact the overall quality of life of those participating in the tourism experience’ (p. 162). These results are also in accordance with Luo et al.’s [ 18 ] findings in wellness tourism.

The proposed model also demonstrates the relationship between experience satisfaction and loyalty in accordance with general marketing literature [ 52 ] and similar studies [ 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Following other authors [ 54 , 55 ], this work challenges the traditional conceptualisation of loyalty by considering two objects towards which loyal behaviours can be prompted: the destination and the kind of experience itself. Under this original approach, this research confirms the direct impact that experiential satisfaction exerts on both experiential loyalty (H3+) (β = 0.545 ***) and on destination loyalty (H4+) (β = 0.707 ***).

This study also finds support for the relationship between quality of life and loyalty, which is in line with the outcomes of other authors [ 26 , 54 , 59 ], validating the importance of quality of life as an effective predictor of loyalty behaviours. However, some specifications are needed in the context of this research. The direct impact that quality of life has on destination loyalty is low (H6+) (β = 0.135 *) if compared with the one it exerts on experiential loyalty (H5+) (β = 0.346 ***). Then, it can be affirmed that in experiential contexts with healthy water-based tourism, the perceived enhancement of quality of life is a more effective driver of loyal intentions towards the experience rather than for loyalty towards the destination. Therefore, experiences appear to be more valuable tools than destinations in the loyalty formation process, which is possibly even more noticeable in experiences that have the potential of enhancing an individual’s health.

The positive results obtained by the proposed model support the suitability of considering healthy water-based tourism experiences as a strategy which capitalises water in a sustainable way and fosters economic and social benefits. The former are achieved with the creation of an innovative tourism proposal capable of diversifying the offer of a territory that counts with bodies of water that have marked the landscapes and lifestyles. This diversification of the tourism industry has a positive direct impact on economic revenues and employment. The latter, that is, are social benefits that are referred to two beneficiaries: tourists and residents. Travellers directly benefit from the contact of a new tourism attraction that provides them physical and mental wellbeing and recovery. Indirectly, residents can enjoy the network of infra-structures and services developed for the water-based tourism activity, even more important in rural and depopulated settings. Thus, quality of life is not only promoted for tourists, but also for the residents of the territories in which the tourism activity is developed.

In addition, it is essential to take into account the development of this type of destination and tourism products from a structured planning point of view. In tourism it is vital to plan bearing in mind the application of sustainable criteria, which is more important in fragile settings such as the ones with water resources. This is one of the most important requirements to implement a successful tourism development strategy in the long term.

6. Conclusions

In this work we explore the impact that tourism water-based activities practiced with a healthy purpose have on significant marketing outcomes such as satisfaction, loyalty and individuals’ quality of life. By applying the 4Es’ model [ 20 ], the dimensions of entertainment and esthetics were the most influential in creating experiences in the context considered for this study. As other authors did before in different contexts [ 27 , 28 , 29 ], this research validated, for the first time, the 4Es’ model in water-and-health tourism.

This work offers an original perspective on how tourism experiences based on water and health can be considered and implemented as a strategy. The main contribution of the study is the confirmation that water-based practices offer experiential value to tourists and exert a positive impact on tourists’ quality of life, satisfaction and loyalty. Those results open a wide ground field of study where water is the central resource supporting new proposals. Water-based experiences can be considered the seed of a new value for water, which in turn can develop and commercialise healthy water-based tourism experiences that can foster economic and social benefits. Given that, the promotion of this new water culture through tourism could enhance the consciousness about the importance of implementing smart and sustainable water management strategies in order to assure the preservation of this essential resource.

The theoretical contributions of this work are threefold. Firstly, it is confirmed that tourism activities based on water and health are perceived as tourism experiences, according to the 4Es’ model [ 20 ], whose scale has been validated in the context of this research. Secondly, the results achieved offer empirical support to the structural model proposed which suggests that the experiences based on water and health have a positive impact on satisfaction, quality of life and loyalty. Finally, this research puts forward a brand-new approach for satisfaction and loyalty. These two variables are studied towards the tourism experience itself, rather than measuring the tourists’ satisfaction with regard to functional elements and loyalty towards the destination.

The results of this research have useful practical implications for those companies and destinations that have in water and health their main tourism attractions and that wish to turn their offers into more experiential proposals. The study suggests that, in order to foster experientiality in water-based activity, it would be recommendable to put forward tourism products that combine the visits to thermal spas and treatments with other offers, such as nature-based activities, wellness practices (e.g., yoga and mindfulness) and experiences focused on raising a new awareness for the benefits of water on human health.

The study’s findings show how tourism products linking water and health are a suitable response to the current desires and needs of modern tourists, increasingly interested in living authentic, educational and emotional experiences during their holiday time [ 1 , 7 ]. Moreover, this research confirms the important role that water-based experiences have on enhancing the tourists’ perceptions of quality of life, and how this drives tourists’ satisfaction and future loyal behaviours, with a special emphasis on behavioural intentions towards a specific kind of experience (water-based in this context). This suggests that, in the current experiential trend, managers and practitioners need to pursue loyal clients by focusing on the promotion of experiences more than the destination’s attributes in order to better their performances and increase their revenues.

In the context of natural settings, the quest for loyalty from tourists who are interested in healthy water-based tourism experiences has to be interpreted as a sustainable strategy to manage water in the long-term. If healthy water-based tourism experiences were promoted from a natural resources point of view, noticeable benefits for nature, individuals, companies and local residents could be obtained through quality of life and economic and social benefits, which can definitively endorse preserving natural environments and fostering a ‘water culture’.

Finally, the use of bodies of water for tourism purposes generates a net of interests for the protection of water’s quality not just for its environmental value, but also for being economically worthy as the engine of a new economic and social push. Water-based experiences have the power of revitalising rural economies, generating new employment opportunities, saving decaying societies and, most importantly, encouraging a respectful and long-lasting use of water.

The limitations and delimitations of this study have to be seen in the use of a non-probability sampling procedure, which could limit the results’ generalisability. The combination of a paper-based and an online technique for data collection may have introduced some bias, even though it did not compromise the validity of the results according to the outputs of a t-test performed. Despite these limitations, this research can possibly contribute to the identification of a new research line linking water and tourism that can add new knowledge to the experience and wellness tourism literature.

The study was applied in thermal spas and similar establishments. Future research could be focused on nature-based activities related to water, which may offer more consistent results from the application of the 4Es’ model [ 20 ]. This may allow a greater generalisation of this study’s results and provide significant contributions to other kinds of destinations and companies that use water as a main tourism attraction.

Acknowledgments

Project co-funded by FEDER and Junta de Extremadura (Spain) (Reference No. GR18109).

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, A.M.C.-C. and E.D.-C.; methodology, A.M.C.-C., J.M.H.-M.; resources, J.A.F.-F.; data curation, J.A.F.-F.; writing – original draft preparation A.M.C.-C.; writing – review & editing, E.D.-C.; supervision, J.M.H.-M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Glossary of tourism terms

Tourism is a social, cultural and economic phenomenon which entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment for personal or business/professional purposes. These people are called visitors (which may be either tourists or excursionists; residents or non-residents) and tourism has to do with their activities, some of which involve tourism expenditure.

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W Y Z

Activity/activities : In tourism statistics, the term activities represent the actions and behaviors of people in preparation for and during a trip in their capacity as consumers ( IRTS 2008, 1.2 ).

Activity (principal): The principal activity of a producer unit is the activity whose value added exceeds that of any other activity carried out within the same unit ( SNA 2008, 5.8 ).

Activity (productive): The (productive) activity carried out by a statistical unit is the type of production in which it engages. It has to be understood as a process, i.e. the combination of actions that result in a certain set of products. The classification of productive activities is determined by their principal output.

Administrative data : Administrative data is the set of units and data derived from an administrative source. This is a data holding information collected and maintained for the purpose of implementing one or more administrative regulations.

Adventure tourism : Adventure tourism is a type of tourism which usually takes place in destinations with specific geographic features and landscape and tends to be associated with a physical activity, cultural exchange, interaction and engagement with nature. This experience may involve some kind of real or perceived risk and may require significant physical and/or mental effort. Adventure tourism generally includes outdoor activities such as mountaineering, trekking, bungee jumping, rock climbing, rafting, canoeing, kayaking, canyoning, mountain biking, bush walking, scuba diving. Likewise, some indoor adventure tourism activities may also be practiced.

Aggregated data : The result of transforming unit level data into quantitative measures for a set of characteristics of a population.

Aggregation : A process that transforms microdata into aggregate-level information by using an aggregation function such as count, sum average, standard deviation, etc.

Analytical unit : Entity created by statisticians, by splitting or combining observation units with the help of estimations and imputations.

Balance of payments : The balance of payments is a statistical statement that summarizes transactions between residents and non-residents during a period. It consists of the goods and services account, the primary income account, the secondary income account, the capital account, and the financial account ( BPM6, 2.12 ).

Bias : An effect which deprives a statistical result of representativeness by systematically distorting it, as distinct from a random error which may distort on any one occasion but balances out on the average.

Business and professional purpose (of a tourism trip): The business and professional purpose of a tourism trip includes the activities of the self-employed and employees, as long as they do not correspond to an implicit or explicit employer-employee relationship with a resident producer in the country or place visited, those of investors, businessmen, etc. ( IRTS 2008, 3.17.2 ).

Business tourism : Business tourism is a type of tourism activity in which visitors travel for a specific professional and/or business purpose to a place outside their workplace and residence with the aim of attending a meeting, an activity or an event. The key components of business tourism are meetings, incentives, conventions and exhibitions. The term "meetings industry" within the context of business tourism recognizes the industrial nature of such activities. Business tourism can be combined with any other tourism type during the same trip.

Business visitor : A business visitor is a visitor whose main purpose for a tourism trip corresponds to the business and professional category of purpose ( IRTS 2008, 3.17.2 ).

Central Product Classification : The Central Product Classification (CPC) constitutes a complete product classification covering goods and services. It is intended to serve as an international standard for assembling and tabulating all kinds of data requiring product detail, including industrial production, national accounts, service industries, domestic and foreign commodity trade, international trade in services, balance of payments, consumption and price statistics. Other basic aims are to provide a framework for international comparison and promote harmonization of various types of statistics dealing with goods and services.

Census : A census is the complete enumeration of a population or groups at a point in time with respect to well defined characteristics: for example, Population, Production, Traffic on particular roads.

Coastal, maritime and inland water tourism : Coastal tourism refers to land-based tourism activities such as swimming, surfing, sunbathing and other coastal leisure, recreation and sports activities which take place on the shore of a sea, lake or river. Proximity to the coast is also a condition for services and facilities that support coastal tourism. Maritime tourism refers to sea-based activities such as cruising, yachting, boating and nautical sports and includes their respective land-based services and infrastructure. Inland water tourism refers to tourism activities such as cruising, yachting, boating and nautical sports which take place in aquatic- influenced environments located within land boundaries and include lakes, rivers, ponds, streams, groundwater, springs, cave waters and others traditionally grouped as inland wetlands.

Coherence : Adequacy of statistics to be combined in different ways and for various uses.

Competitiveness of a tourism destination : The competitiveness of a tourism destination is the ability of the destination to use its natural, cultural, human, man-made and capital resources efficiently to develop and deliver quality, innovative, ethical and attractive tourism products and services in order to achieve a sustainable growth within its overall vision and strategic goals, increase the added value of the tourism sector, improve and diversify its market components and optimize its attractiveness and benefits both for visitors and the local community in a sustainable perspective.

Consistency : Logical and numerical coherence.

Country of reference : The country of reference refers to the country for which the measurement is done. ( IRTS 2008, 2.15 ).

Country of residence : The country of residence of a household is determined according to the centre of predominant economic interest of its members. If a person resides (or intends to reside) for more than one year in a given country and has there his/her centre of economic interest (for example, where the predominant amount of time is spent), he/she is considered as a resident of this country.

Country-specific tourism characteristic products and activities : To be determined by each country by applying the criteria of IRTS 2008, 5.10 in their own context; for these products, the activities producing them will be considered as tourism characteristic, and the industries in which the principal activity is tourism-characteristic will be called tourism industries ( IRTS 2008, 5.16 ).

Cultural tourism : Cultural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor's essential motivation is to learn, discover, experience and consume the tangible and intangible cultural attractions/products in a tourism destination. These attractions/products relate to a set of distinctive material, intellectual, spiritual and emotional features of a society that encompasses arts and architecture, historical and cultural heritage, culinary heritage, literature, music, creative industries and the living cultures with their lifestyles, value systems, beliefs and traditions.

Data checking : Activity whereby the correctness conditions of the data are verified. It also includes the specification of the type of error or of the condition not met, and the qualification of the data and their division into "error-free data" and "erroneous data".

Data collection : Systematic process of gathering data for official statistics.

Data compilation : Operations performed on data to derive new information according to a given set of rules.

Data confrontation : The process of comparing data that has generally been derived from different surveys or other sources, especially those of different frequencies, in order to assess and possibly improve their coherency, and identify the reasons for any differences.

Data processing : Data processing is the operation performed on data by the organization, institute, agency, etc., responsible for undertaking the collection, tabulation, manipulation and preparation of data and metadata output.

Data reconciliation : The process of adjusting data derived from two different sources to remove, or at least reduce, the impact of differences identified.

Destination (main destination of a trip): The main destination of a tourism trip is defined as the place visited that is central to the decision to take the trip. See also purpose of a tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 2.31 ).

Destination management / marketing organization (DMO) : A destination management/marketing organization (DMO) is the leading organizational entity which may encompass the various authorities, stakeholders and professionals and facilitates tourism sector partnerships towards a collective destination vision. The governance structures of DMOs vary from a single public authority to a public/ private partnership model with the key role of initiating, coordinating and managing certain activities such as implementation of tourism policies, strategic planning, product development, promotion and marketing and convention bureau activities. The functions of the DMOs may vary from national to regional and local levels depending on the current and potential needs as well as on the decentralization level of public administration. Not every tourism destination has a DMO.

Documentation: Processes and procedures for imputation,  weighting,  confidentiality  and suppression rules, outlier treatment and data capture should be fully documented by the  survey provider.  Such documentation should be made available to at least  the body financing the survey.

Domestic tourism : Domestic tourism comprises the activities of a resident visitor within the country of reference, either as part of a domestic tourism trip or part of an outbound tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 2.39 ).

Domestic tourism consumption : Domestic tourism consumption is the tourism consumption of a resident visitor within the economy of reference ( TSA:RMF 2008, figure 2.1 ).

Domestic tourism expenditure : Domestic tourism expenditure is the tourism expenditure of a resident visitor within the economy of reference, (IRTS 2008, 4.15(a)).

Domestic tourism trip : A domestic tourism trip is one with a main destination within the country of residence of the visitor (IRTS 2008, 2.32).

Domestic visitor : As a visitor travels within his/her country of residence, he/she is a domestic visitor and his/her activities are part of domestic tourism.

Durable consumer goods : Durable consumer goods are goods that may be used repeatedly or continuously over a period of a year or more, assuming a normal or average rate of physical usage. When acquired by producers, these are considered to be capital goods used for production processes, as is the case of vehicles, computers, etc. When acquired by households, they are considered to be consumer durable goods ( TSA:RMF 2008, 2.39 ). This definition is identical to the definition of SNA 2008, 9.42 : A consumer durable is a goodthat may be used for purposes of consumption repeatedly or continuously over a period of a year or more.

Dwellings : Each household has a principal dwelling (sometimes also designated as main or primary home), usually defined with reference to time spent there, whose location defines the country of residence and place of usual residence of this household and of all its members. All other dwellings (owned or leased by the household) are considered secondary dwellings ( IRTS 2008, 2.26 ).

Ecotourism : Ecotourism is a type of nature-based tourism activity in which the visitor's essential motivation is to observe, learn, discover, experience and appreciate biological and cultural diversity with a responsible attitude to protect the integrity of the ecosystem and enhance the well-being of the local community. Ecotourism increases awareness towards the conservation of biodiversity, natural environment and cultural assets both among locals and the visitors and requires special management processes to minimize the negative impact on the ecosystem.

Economic analysis : Tourism generates directly and indirectly an increase in economic activity in the places visited (and beyond), mainly due to demand for goods and services thatneed to be produced and provided. In the economic analysis of tourism, one may distinguish between tourism's 'economic contribution' which refers to the direct effect of tourism and is measurable by means of the TSA, and tourism's 'economic impact' which is a much broader concept encapsulating the direct, indirect and induced effects of tourism and which must be estimated by applying models. Economic impact studies aim to quantify economic benefits, that is, the net increase in the wealth of residents resulting from tourism, measured in monetary terms, over and above the levels that would prevail in its absence.

Economic territory : The term "economic territory" is a geographical reference and points to the country for which the measurement is done (country of reference) ( IRTS 2008, 2.15 ).

Economically active population : The economically active population or labour force comprises all persons of either sex who furnish the supply of labour for the production of goods and services as defined by the system of national accounts during a specified time-reference period (ILO, Thirteenth ICLS, 6.18).

Economy (of reference): "Economy" (or "economy of reference") is an economic reference defined in the same way as in the balance of payments and in the system of national accounts: it refers to the economic agents that are resident in the country of reference ( IRTS 2008, 2.15 ).

Education tourism : Education tourism covers those types of tourism which have as a primary motivation the tourist's engagement and experience in learning, self-improvement, intellectual growth and skills development. Education Tourism represents a broad range of products and services related to academic studies, skill enhancement holidays, school trips, sports training, career development courses and language courses, among others.

Employees : Employees are all those workers who hold the type of job defined as "paid employment" (ILO, Fifteenth ICLS, pp. 20-22).

Employer-employee relationship : An employer-employee relationship exists when there is an agreement, which may be formal or informal, between an entity and an individual, normally entered into voluntarily by both parties, whereby the individual works for the entity in return for remuneration in cash or in kind ( BPM6, 11.11 ).

Employers : Employers are those workers who, working on their own account with one or more partners, hold the type of job defined as a "self-employment job" and, in this capacity, on a continuous basis (including the reference period) have engaged one or more persons to work for them in their business as "employee(s)" (ILO, Fifteenth ICLS, pp. 20-22).

Employment : Persons in employment are all persons above a specified age who, during a specified brief period, either one week or one day, were in paid employment or self-employment (OECD GST, p. 170).

Employment in tourism industries : Employment in tourism industries may be measured as a count of the persons employed in tourism industries in any of their jobs, as a count of the persons employed in tourism industries in their main job, or as a count of the jobs in tourism industries ( IRTS 2008, 7.9 ).

Enterprise : An enterprise is an institutional unit engaged in production of goods and/or services. It may be a corporation, a non-profit institution, or an unincorporated enterprise. Corporate enterprises and non-profit institutions are complete institutional units. An unincorporated enterprise, however, refers to an institutional unit —a household or government unit —only in its capacity as a producer of goods and services (OECD BD4, p. 232)

Establishment : An establishment is an enterprise, or part of an enterprise, that is situated in a single location and in which only a single productive activity is carried out or in which the principal productive activity accounts for most of the value added ( SNA 2008, 5.14 ).

Estimation : Estimation is concerned with inference about the numerical value of unknown population values from incomplete data such as a sample. If a single figure is calculated for each unknown parameter the process is called "point estimation". If an interval is calculated within which the parameter is likely, in some sense, to lie, the process is called "interval estimation".

Exports of goods and services : Exports of goods and services consist of sales, barter, or gifts or grants, of goods and services from residents to non-residents (OECD GST, p. 194)

Frame : A list, map or other specification of the units which define a population to be completely enumerated or sampled.

Forms of tourism : There are three basic forms of tourism: domestic tourism, inbound tourism, and outbound tourism. These can be combined in various ways to derive the following additional forms of tourism: internal tourism, national tourism and international tourism.

Gastronomy tourism :  Gastronomy tourism is a type of tourism activity which is characterized by the visitor's experience linked with food and related products and activities while travelling. Along with authentic, traditional, and/or innovative culinary experiences, Gastronomy Tourism may also involve other related activities such as visiting the local producers, participating in food festivals and attending cooking classes. Eno-tourism (wine tourism), as a sub-type of gastronomy tourism, refers to tourism whose purpose is visiting vineyards, wineries, tasting, consuming and/or purchasing wine, often at or near the source.

Goods : Goods are physical, produced objects for which a demand exists, over which ownership rights can be established and whose ownership can be transferred from one institutional unit to another by engaging in transactions on markets ( SNA 2008, p. 623 ).

Gross fixed capital formation : Gross fixed capital formation is defined as the value of institutional units' acquisitions less disposals of fixed assets. Fixed assets are produced assets (such as machinery, equipment, buildings or other structures) that are used repeatedly or continuously in production over several accounting periods (more than one year) ( SNA 2008, 1.52 ).

Gross margin : The gross margin of a provider of reservation services is the difference between the value at which the intermediated service is sold and the value accrued to the provider of reservation services for this intermediated service.

Gross value added : Gross value added is the value of output less the value of intermediate consumption ( TSA:RMF 2008, 3.32 ).

Gross value added of tourism industries : Gross value added of tourism industries (GVATI) is the total gross value added of all establishments belonging to tourism industries, regardless of whether all their output is provided to visitors and the degree of specialization of their production process ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.86 ).

Grossing up : Activity aimed at transforming, based on statistical methodology, micro-data from samples into aggregate-level information representative of the target population.

Health tourism : Health tourism covers those types of tourism which have as a primary motivation, the contribution to physical, mental and/or spiritual health through medical and wellness-based activities which increase the capacity of individuals to satisfy their own needs and function better as individuals in their environment and society. Health tourism is the umbrella term for the subtypes wellness tourism and medical tourism.

Imputation : Procedure for entering a value for a specific data item where the response is missing or unusable.

Inbound tourism : Inbound tourism comprises the activities of a non-resident visitor within the country of reference on an inbound tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 2.39 ).

Inbound tourism consumption : Inbound tourism consumption is the tourism consumption of a non-resident visitor within the economy of reference ( TSA:RMF 2008, figure 2.1 ).

Inbound tourism expenditure : Inbound tourism expenditure is the tourism expenditure of a non-resident visitor within the economy of reference ( IRTS 2008, 4.15(b) ).

Innovation in tourism : Innovation in tourism is the introduction of a new or improved component which intends to bring tangible and intangible benefits to tourism stakeholders and the local community, improve the value of the tourism experience and the core competencies of the tourism sector and hence enhance tourism competitiveness and /or sustainability. Innovation in tourism may cover potential areas, such as tourism destinations, tourism products, technology, processes, organizations and business models, skills, architecture, services, tools and/or practices for management, marketing, communication, operation, quality assurance and pricing.

Institutional sector : An aggregation of institutional units on the basis of the type of producer and depending on their principal activity and function, which are considered to be indicative of their economic behaviour.

Institutional unit : The elementary economic decision-making centre characterised by uniformity of behaviour and decision-making autonomy in the exercise of its principal function.

Intermediate consumption : Intermediate consumption consists of the value of the goods and services consumed as inputs by a process of production, excluding fixed assets whose consumption is recorded as consumption of fixed capital ( SNA 2008, 6.213 ).

Internal tourism : Internal tourism comprises domestic tourism and inbound tourism, that is to say, the activities of resident and non-resident visitors within the country of reference as part of domestic or international tourism trips ( IRTS 2008, 2.40(a) ).

Internal tourism consumption : Internal tourism consumption is the tourism consumption of both resident and non-resident visitors within the economy of reference. It is the sum of domestic tourism consumption and inbound tourism consumption ( TSA:RMF 2008, figure 2.1 ).

Internal tourism expenditure : Internal tourism expenditure comprises all tourism expenditure of visitors, both resident and non-resident, within the economy of reference. It is the sum of domestic tourism expenditure and inbound tourism expenditure. It includes acquisition of goods and services imported into the country of reference and sold to visitors. This indicator provides the most comprehensive measurement of tourism expenditure in the economy of reference ( IRTS 2008, 4.20(a) ).

International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities : The International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC) consists of a coherent and consistent classification structure of economic activities based on a set of internationally agreed concepts, definitions, principles and classification rules. It provides a comprehensive framework within which economic data can be collected and reported in a format that is designed for purposes of economic analysis, decision-taking and policymaking. The classification structure represents a standard format to organize detailed information about the state of an economy according to economic principles and perceptions (ISIC, Rev.4, 1).

International tourism : International tourism comprises inbound tourism and outbound tourism, that is to say, the activities of resident visitors outside the country of reference, either as part of domestic or outbound tourism trips and the activities of non-resident visitors within the country of reference on inbound tourism trips ( IRTS 2008, 2.40(c) ).

International visitor : An international traveller qualifies as an international visitor with respect to the country of reference if: (a) he/she is on a tourism trip and (b) he/she is a non-resident travelling in the country of reference or a resident travelling outside of it ( IRTS 2008, 2.42 ).

Job : The agreement between an employee and the employer defines a job and each self-employed person has a job ( SNA 2008, 19.30 ).

Measurement error : Error in reading, calculating or recording numerical value.

Medical tourism : Medical tourism is a type of tourism activity which involves the use of evidence-based medical healing resources and services (both invasive and non-invasive). This may include diagnosis, treatment, cure, prevention and rehabilitation.

Meetings industry : To highlight purposes relevant to the meetings industry, if a trip's main purpose is business/professional, it can be further subdivided into "attending meetings, conferences or congresses, trade fairs and exhibitions" and "other business and professional purposes". The term meetings industry is preferred by the International Congress and Convention Association (ICCA), Meeting Professionals International (MPI) and Reed Travel over the acronym MICE (Meetings, Incentives, Conferences and Exhibitions) which does not recognize the industrial nature of such activities.

Metadata : Data that defines and describes other data and processes.

MICE : See meetings industry.

Microdata : Non-aggregated observations, or measurements of characteristics of individual units.

Mirror statistics : Mirror statistics are used to conduct bilateral comparisons of two basic measures of a trade flow and are a traditional tool for detecting the causes of asymmetries in statistics (OECD GST, p. 335).

Mountain tourism : Mountain tourism is a type of tourism activity which takes place in a defined and limited geographical space such as hills or mountains with distinctive characteristics and attributes that are inherent to a specific landscape, topography, climate, biodiversity (flora and fauna) and local community. It encompasses a broad range of outdoor leisure and sports activities.

National tourism : National tourism comprises domestic tourism and outbound tourism, that is to say, the activities of resident visitors within and outside the country of reference, either as part of domestic or outbound tourism trips ( IRTS 2008, 2.40(b) ).

National tourism consumption : National tourism consumption is the tourism consumption of resident visitors, within and outside the economy of reference. It is the sum of domestic tourism consumption and outbound tourism consumption ( TSA:RMF 2008, figure 2.1 ).

National tourism expenditure : National tourism expenditure comprises all tourism expenditure of resident visitors within and outside the economy of reference. It is the sum of domestic tourism expenditure and outbound tourism expenditure ( IRTS 2008, 4.20(b) ).

Nationality : The concept of "country of residence" of a traveller is different from that of his/her nationality or citizenship ( IRTS 2008, 2.19 ).

Non-monetary indicators : Data measured in physical or other non-monetary units should not be considered a secondary part of a satellite account. They are essential components, both for the information they provide directly and in order to analyse the monetary data adequately ( SNA 2008, 29.84 ).

Observation unit : entity on which information is received and statistics are compiled.

Outbound tourism : Outbound tourism comprises the activities of a resident visitor outside the country of reference, either as part of an outbound tourism trip or as part of a domestic tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 2.39(c) ).

Outbound tourism consumption : Outbound tourism consumption is the tourism consumption of a resident visitor outside the economy of reference ( TSA:RMF 2008, figure 2.1 ).

Outbound tourism expenditure : Outbound tourism expenditure is the tourism expenditure of a resident visitor outside the economy of reference ( IRTS 2008, 4.15(c) ).

Output : Output is defined as the goods and services produced by an establishment, a) excluding the value of any goods and services used in an activity for which the establishment does not assume the risk of using the products in production, and b) excluding the value of goods and services consumed by the same establishment except for goods and services used for capital formation (fixed capital or changes in inventories) or own final consumption ( SNA 2008, 6.89 ).

Output (main): The main output of a (productive) activity should be determined by reference to the value added of the goods sold or services rendered (ISIC rev.4, 114).

Pilot survey : The aim of a pilot survey is to test the questionnaire (pertinence of the questions, understanding of questions by those being interviewed, duration of the interview) and to check various potential sources for sampling and non-sampling errors: for instance, the place in which the surveys are carried out and the method used, the identification of any omitted answers and the reason for the omission, problems of communicating in various languages, translation, the mechanics of data collection, the organization of field work, etc.

Place of usual residence : The place of usual residence is the geographical place where the enumerated person usually resides, and is defined by the location of his/her principal dwelling (Principles and recommendations for population and housing censuses of the United Nations, 2.20 to 2.24).

Probability sample : A sample selected by a method based on the theory of probability (random process), that is, by a method involving knowledge of the likelihood of any unit being selected.

Production account : The production account records the activity of producing goods and services as defined within the SNA. Its balancing item, gross value added, is defined as the value of output less the value of intermediate consumption and is a measure of the contribution to GDP made by an individual producer, industry or sector. Gross value added is the source from which the primary incomes of the SNA are generated and is therefore carried forward into the primary distribution of income account. Value added and GDP may also be measured net by deducting consumption of fixed capital, a figure representing the decline in value during the period of the fixed capital used in a production process ( SNA 2008, 1.17 ).

Production : Economic production may be defined as an activity carried out under the control and responsibility of an institutional unit that uses inputs of labour, capital, and goods and services to produce outputs of goods or services ( SNA 2008, 6.24. ).

Purpose of a tourism trip (main): The main purpose of a tourism trip is defined as the purpose in the absence of which the trip would not have taken place ( IRTS 2008, 3.10. ). Classification of tourism trips according to the main purpose refers to nine categories: this typology allows the identification of different subsets of visitors (business visitors, transit visitors, etc.) See also destination of a tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 3.14 ).

Quality of a tourism destination : Quality of a tourism destination is the result of a process which implies the satisfaction of all tourism product and service needs, requirements and expectations of the consumer at an acceptable price, in conformity with mutually accepted contractual conditions and the implicit underlying factors such as safety and security, hygiene, accessibility, communication, infrastructure and public amenities and services. It also involves aspects of ethics, transparency and respect towards the human, natural and cultural environment. Quality, as one of the key drivers of tourism competitiveness, is also a professional tool for organizational, operational and perception purposes for tourism suppliers.

Questionnaire and Questionnaire design : Questionnaire is a group or sequence of questions designed to elicit information on a subject, or sequence of subjects, from a reporting unit or from another producer of official statistics. Questionnaire design is the design (text, order, and conditions for skipping) of the questions used to obtain the data needed for the survey.

Reference period : The period of time or point in time to which the measured observation is intended to refer.

Relevance : The degree to which statistics meet current and potential users' needs.

Reliability : Closeness of the initial estimated value to the subsequent estimated value.

Reporting unit : Unit that supplies the data for a given survey instance, like a questionnaire or interview. Reporting units may, or may not, be the same as the observation unit.

Residents/non-residents : The residents of a country are individuals whose centre of predominant economic interest is located in its economic territory. For a country, the non-residents are individuals whose centre of predominant economic interest is located outside its economic territory.

Response and non-response : Response and non-response to various elements of a survey entail potential errors.

Response error : Response errors may be defined as those arising from the interviewing process. Such errors may be due to a number of circumstances, such as inadequate concepts or questions; inadequate training; interviewer failures; respondent failures.

Rural tourism : Rural tourism is a type of tourism activity in which the visitor's experience is related to a wide range of products generally linked to nature-based activities, agriculture, rural lifestyle / culture, angling and sightseeing. Rural tourism activities take place in non-urban (rural) areas with the following characteristics:

• Low population density;
• Landscape and land-use dominated by agriculture and forestry; and
• Traditional social structure and lifestyle

Same-day visitor (or excursionist): A visitor (domestic, inbound or outbound) is classified as a tourist (or overnight visitor), if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise ( IRTS 2008, 2.13 ).

Sample : A subset of a frame where elements are selected based on a process with a known probability of selection.

Sample survey : A survey which is carried out using a sampling method.

Sampling error : That part of the difference between a population value and an estimate thereof, derived from a random sample, which is due to the fact that only a subset of the population is enumerated.

Satellite accounts : There are two types of satellite accounts, serving two different functions. The first type, sometimes called an internal satellite, takes the full set of accounting rules and conventions of the SNA but focuses on a particular aspect of interest by moving away from the standard classifications and hierarchies. Examples are tourism, coffee production and environmental protection expenditure. The second type, called an external satellite, may add non-economic data or vary some of the accounting conventions or both. It is a particularly suitable way to explore new areas in a research context. An example may be the role of volunteer labour in the economy ( SNA 2008, 29.85 ).

SDMX, Statistical Data and Metadata Exchange : Set of technical standards and content-oriented guidelines, together with an IT architecture and tools, to be used for the efficient exchange and sharing of statistical data and metadata (SDMX).

Seasonal adjustment : Seasonal adjustment is a statistical technique to remove the effects of seasonal calendar influences on a series. Seasonal effects usually reflect the influence of the seasons themselves, either directly or through production series related to them, or social conventions. Other types of calendar variation occur as a result of influences such as number of days in the calendar period, the accounting or recording practices adopted or the incidence of moving holidays.

Self-employment job : Self-employment jobs are those jobs where remuneration is directly dependent upon the profits (or the potential of profits) derived from the goods or services produced.

Self-employed with paid employees : Self-employed with paid employees are classified as employers.

Self-employed without employees : Self-employed without employees are classified as own-account workers.

Services : Services are the result of a production activity that changes the conditions of the consuming units, or facilitates the exchange of products or financial assets. They cannot be traded separately from their production. By the time their production is completed, they must have been provided to the consumers ( SNA 2008, 6.17 ).

Social transfers in kind : A special case of transfers in kind is that of social transfers in kind. These consist of goods and services provided by general government and non-profit institutions serving households (NPISHs) that are delivered to individual households. Health and education services are the prime examples. Rather than provide a specified amount of money to be used to purchase medical and educational services, the services are often provided in kind to make sure that the need for the services is met. (Sometimes the recipient purchases the service and is reimbursed by the insurance or assistance scheme. Such a transaction is still treated as being in kind because the recipient is merely acting as the agent of the insurance scheme) (SNA 2008, 3.83).

Sports tourism : Sports tourism is a type of tourism activity which refers to the travel experience of the tourist who either observes as a spectator or actively participates in a sporting event generally involving commercial and non-commercial activities of a competitive nature.

Standard classification : Classifications that follow prescribed rules and are generally recommended and accepted.

Statistical error : The unknown difference between the retained value and the true value.

Statistical indicator : A data element that represents statistical data for a specified time, place, and other characteristics, and is corrected for at least one dimension (usually size) to allow for meaningful comparisons.

Statistical metadata : Data about statistical data.

Statistical unit : Entity about which information is sought and about which statistics are compiled. Statistical units may be identifiable legal or physical entities or statistical constructs.

Survey : An investigation about the characteristics of a given population by means of collecting data from a sample of that population and estimating their characteristics through the systematic use of statistical methodology.

System of National Accounts : The System of National Accounts (SNA) is the internationally agreed standard set of recommendations on how to compile measures of economic activity in accordance with strict accounting conventions based on economic principles. The recommendations are expressed in terms of a set of concepts, definitions, classifications and accounting rules that comprise the internationally agreed standard for measuring indicators of economic performance. The accounting framework of the SNA allows economic data to be compiled and presented in a format that is designed for purposes of economic analysis, decision-taking and policymaking ( SNA 2008, 1.1 ).

Total tourism internal demand : Total tourism internal demand, is the sum of internal tourism consumption, tourism gross fixed capital formation and tourism collective consumption ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.114 ). It does not include outbound tourism consumption.

Tourism : Tourism refers to the activity of visitors ( IRTS 2008, 2.9 ).

Tourism characteristic activities : Tourism characteristic activities are the activities that typically produce tourism characteristic products. As the industrial origin of a product (the ISIC industry that produces it) is not a criterion for the aggregation of products within a similar CPC category, there is no strict one-to-one relationship between products and the industries producing them as their principal outputs ( IRTS 2008, 5.11 ).

Tourism characteristic products : Tourism characteristic products are those that satisfy one or both of the following criteria: a) Tourism expenditure on the product should represent a significant share total tourism expenditure (share-of-expenditure/demand condition); b) Tourism expenditure on the product should represent a significant share of the supply of the product in the economy (share-of-supply condition). This criterion implies that the supply of a tourism characteristic product would cease to exist in meaningful quantity in the absence of visitors ( IRTS 2008, 5.10 ).

Tourism connected products : Their significance within tourism analysis for the economy of reference is recognized although their link to tourism is very limited worldwide. Consequently, lists of such products will be country-specific ( IRTS 2008, 5.12 ).

Tourism consumption : Tourism consumption has the same formal definition as tourism expenditure. Nevertheless, the concept of tourism consumption used in the Tourism Satellite Account goes beyond that of tourism expenditure. Besides the amount paid for the acquisition of consumption goods and services, as well as valuables for own use or to give away, for and during tourism trips, which corresponds to monetary transactions (the focus of tourism expenditure), it also includes services associated with vacation accommodation on own account, tourism social transfers in kind and other imputed consumption. These transactions need to be estimated using sources different from information collected directly from the visitors, such as reports on home exchanges, estimations of rents associated with vacation homes, calculations of financial intermediation services indirectly measured (FISIM), etc. ( TSA:RMF 2008, 2.25 ).

Tourism destination : A tourism destination is a physical space with or without administrative and/or analytical boundaries in which a visitor can spend an overnight. It is the cluster (co-location) of products and services, and of activities and experiences along the tourism value chain and a basic unit of analysis of tourism. A destination incorporates various stakeholders and can network to form larger destinations. It is also intangible with its image and identity which may influence its market competitiveness.

Tourism direct gross domestic product : Tourism direct gross domestic product (TDGDP) is the sum of the part of gross value added (at basic prices) generated by all industries in response to internal tourism consumption plus the amount of net taxes on products and imports included within the value of this expenditure at purchasers' prices ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.96 ).

Tourism direct gross value added : Tourism direct gross value added (TDGVA) is the part of gross value added generated by tourism industries and other industries of the economy that directly serve visitors in response to internal tourism consumption ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.88 ).

Tourism expenditure : Tourism expenditure refers to the amount paid for the acquisition of consumption goods and services, as well as valuables, for own use or to give away, for and during tourism trips. It includes expenditures by visitors themselves, as well as expenses that are paid for or reimbursed by others ( IRTS 2008, 4.2 ).

Tourism industries : The tourism industries comprise all establishments for which the principal activity is a tourism characteristic activity. Tourism industries (also referred to as tourism activities) are the activities that typically producetourism characteristic products. The term tourism industries is equivalent to tourism characteristic activities and the two terms are sometimes used synonymously in the IRTS 2008, 5.10, 5.11 and figure 5.1 .

Tourism product : A tourism product is a combination of tangible and intangible elements, such as natural, cultural and man-made resources, attractions, facilities, services and activities around a specific center of interest which represents the core of the destination marketing mix and creates an overall visitor experience including emotional aspects for the potential customers. A tourism product is priced and sold through distribution channels and it has a life-cycle.

Tourism ratio : For each variable of supply in the Tourism Satellite Account, the tourism ratiois the ratio between the total value of tourism share and total value of the corresponding variable in the Tourism Satellite Account expressed in percentage form ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.56 ). (See also Tourism share).

Tourism Satellite Account : The Tourism Satellite Account is the second international standard on tourism statistics (Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework 2008 –TSA:RMF 2008) that has been developed in order to present economic data relative to tourism within a framework of internal and external consistency with the rest of the statistical system through its link to the System of National Accounts. It is the basic reconciliation framework of tourism statistics. As a statistical tool for the economic accounting of tourism, the TSA can be seen as a set of 10 summary tables, each with their underlying data and representing a different aspect of the economic data relative to tourism: inbound, domestic tourism and outbound tourism expenditure, internal tourism expenditure, production accounts of tourism industries, the Gross Value Added (GVA) and Gross Domestic Product (GDP) attributable to tourism demand, employment, investment, government consumption, and non-monetary indicators.

Tourism Satellite Account aggregates : The compilation of the following aggregates, which represent a set of relevant indicators of the size of tourism in an economy is recommended ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.81 ):

• Internal tourism expenditure;
• Internal tourism consumption;
• Gross value added of tourism industries (GVATI);
• Tourism direct gross value added (TDGVA);
• Tourism direct gross domestic product (TDGDP).

Tourism sector : The tourism sector, as contemplated in the TSA, is the cluster of production units in different industries that provide consumption goods and services demanded by visitors. Such industries are called tourism industries because visitor acquisition represents such a significant share of their supply that, in the absence of visitors, their production of these would cease to exist in meaningful quantity.

Tourism share : Tourism share is the share of the corresponding fraction of internal tourism consumption in each component of supply ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.51 ). For each industry, the tourism share of output (in value), is the sum of the tourism share corresponding to each product component of its output ( TSA:RMF 2008, 4.55 ). (See also Tourism ratio ).

Tourism single-purpose consumer durable goods : Tourism single-purpose consumer durables is a specific category of consumer durable goods that include durable goods that are used exclusively, or almost exclusively, by individuals while on tourism trips ( TSA:RMF 2008 , 2.41 and Annex 5 ).

Tourism trip : Trips taken by visitors are tourism trips ( IRTS 2008, 2.29 ).

Tourist (or overnight visitor): A visitor (domestic, inbound or outbound) is classified as a tourist (or overnight visitor), if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise ( IRTS 2008, 2.13 ).

Tourism value chain : The tourism value chain is the sequence of primary and support activities which are strategically fundamental for the performance of the tourism sector. Linked processes such as policy making and integrated planning, product development and packaging, promotion and marketing, distribution and sales and destination operations and services are the key primary activities of the tourism value chain. Support activities involve transport and infrastructure, human resource development, technology and systems development and other complementary goods and services which may not be related to core tourism businesses but have a high impact on the value of tourism.

Travel / traveller : Travel refers to the activity of travellers. A traveller is someone who moves between different geographic locations, for any purpose and any duration ( IRTS 2008, 2.4 ). The visitor is a particular type of traveller and consequently tourism is a subset of travel.

Travel group : A travel group is made up of individuals or travel parties travelling together: examples are people travelling on the same package tour or youngsters attending a summer camp ( IRTS 2008, 3.5 ).

Travel item (in balance of payments): Travel is an item of the goods and services account of the balance of payments: travel credits cover goods and services for own use or to give away acquired from an economy by non-residents during visits to that economy. Travel debits cover goods and services for own use or to give away acquired from other economies by residents during visits to other economies ( BPM6, 10.86 ).

Travel party : A travel party is defined as visitors travelling together on a trip and whose expenditures are pooled ( IRTS 2008, 3.2 ).

Trip : A trip refers to the travel by a person from the time of departure from his/her usual residence until he/she returns: it thus refers to a round trip. Trips taken by visitors are tourism trips.

Urban/city tourism : Urban/city tourism is a type of tourism activity which takes place in an urban space with its inherent attributes characterized by non-agricultural based economy such as administration, manufacturing, trade and services and by being nodal points of transport. Urban/city destinations offer a broad and heterogeneous range of cultural, architectural, technological, social and natural experiences and products for leisure and business.

Usual environment: The usual environment of an individual, a key concept in tourism, is defined as the geographical area (though not necessarily a contiguous one) within which an individual conducts his/her regular life routines ( IRTS 2008, 2.21 ).

Usual residence : The place of usual residence is the geographical place where the enumerated person usually resides (Principles and recommendations for population and housing censuses of the United Nations, 2.16 to 2.18).

Vacation home : A vacation home (sometimes also designated as a holiday home) is a secondary dwelling that is visited by the members of the household mostly for purposes of recreation, vacation or any other form of leisure ( IRTS 2008, 2.27 ).

Valuables : Valuables are produced goods of considerable value that are not used primarily for purposes of production or consumption but are held as stores of value over time ( SNA 2008, 10.13 ).

Visit : A trip is made up of visits to different places.The term "tourism visit" refers to a stay in a place visited during a tourism trip ( IRTS 2008, 2.7 and 2.33 ).

Visitor : A visitor is a traveller taking a trip to a main destination outside his/her usual environment, for less than a year, for any main purpose (business, leisure or other personal purpose) other than to be employed by a resident entity in the country or place visited ( IRTS 2008, 2.9 ). A visitor (domestic, inbound or outbound) is classified as a tourist (or overnight visitor), if his/her trip includes an overnight stay, or as a same-day visitor (or excursionist) otherwise ( IRTS 2008, 2.13 ).

Wellness tourism : Wellness tourism is a type of tourism activity which aims to improve and balance all of the main domains of human life including physical, mental, emotional, occupational, intellectual and spiritual. The primary motivation for the wellness tourist is to engage in preventive, proactive, lifestyle-enhancing activities such as fitness, healthy eating, relaxation, pampering and healing treatments.

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