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Chapter 1. History and Overview

1.6 Conclusion

As we have seen in this chapter, tourism is a complex system that is built up of industry sectors including accommodation, recreation and entertainment, food and beverage services, transportation, and travel services. It encompasses domestic, inbound, and outbound travel for business, leisure, or other purposes. And because of this large scope, tourism development requires participation from all walks of life, including private business, governmental agencies, educational institutions, communities, and citizens.

Recognizing the diverse nature of the industry and the significant contributions tourism makes toward economic and social value for British Columbians is important. There remains a great deal of work to better educate members of the tourism industry, other sectors, and the public about the ways tourism contributes to our province.

Given this opportunity for greater awareness, it is hoped that students like you will help share this information as you learn more about the sector. So let’s begin our exploration in Chapter 2 with a closer look at a critical sector: transportation. Before you get started on Chapter 2 test some of your knowledge to-date by taking this short summary quiz.

• British Columbia Government Travel Bureau ( BCGTB) : the first recognized provincial government organization responsible for the tourism marketing of British Columbia
• Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) : a national railway company widely regarded as establishing tourism in Canada and BC in the late 1800s and early 1900s
• Destination BC: the provincial destination marketing organization (DMO) responsible for tourism marketing and development in BC, formerly known as Tourism BC
• Destination Canada: the national government Crown corporation responsible for marketing Canada abroad, formerly known as the Canadian Tourism Commission (CTC)
• Destination marketing organization (DMO):  also known as a destination management organization; includes national tourism boards, state/provincial tourism offices, and community convention and visitor bureaus
• Diversity: a term used by some in the industry to describe the makeup of the industry in a positive way; acknowledging that tourism is a diverse compilation of a multitude of businesses, services, organizations, and communities
• Excursionist : same-day visitors in a destination. Their trip typically ends on the same day when they leave the destination.
• Fragmentation: a phenomenon observed by some industry insiders whereby the tourism industry is unable to work together toward common marketing and lobbying (policy-setting) objectives
• Hospitality:  the accommodations and food and beverage industry groupings
• North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) : a way to group tourism activities based on similarities in business practices, primarily used for statistical analysis
• Social Exchange Theory : describes how tourists and hosts’ behaviours change as a result of the perceived benefits and threats they create during interaction
• Travel : moving between different locations, often for leisure and recreation
• Tourism:  the business of attracting and serving the needs of people travelling and staying outside their home communities for business and pleasure
• Tourism Industry Association of BC ( TIABC) : a membership-based advocacy group formerly known as the Council of Tourism Associations of BC (COTA)
• Tourism Industry Association of Canada (TIAC): the national industry advocacy group
• Tourism Supply Chain : The combination of sectors that supply and distribute the needed tourism products, services, and activities within the tourism system
• Tourist:  someone who travels at least 80 kilometres from his or her home for at least 24 hours, for business or pleasure or other reasons; can be further classified as domestic, inbound, or outbound
• United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) : UN agency responsible for promoting responsible, sustainable, and universally accessible tourism worldwide

Test your terms knowledge

• List the three types of tourist and provide an example of each.
• What is the UNWTO? Visit the UNWTO website , and name one recent project or study the organization has undertaken.
• List the five industry groups according to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS). Using your  understanding of tourism as an industry, create your own definition and classification of tourism. What did you add? What did you take out? Why?
• What is the difference between Tourism Services and Travel Trade?
• Describe how the phenomenon of tourism can still happen even when tourists have gone back to their origin.
• According to UNEP, what are the four types of negative environmental tourism impact? For each of these, list an example in your own community.
• What major transportation developments gave rise to the tourism industry in Canada?
• Historically, what percentage of international visitors to Canada are from the United States? Why is this an important issue today?
• Name three key events in the history of BC tourism that resonate with you. Why do you find these events of interest?
• Watch the Tourism Pays video feature on Richmond. Now think about the value of tourism in your community. How might this be communicated to local residents? List two ways you will contribute to communicating the value of tourism this semester.
• Choose one article or document from the reference list below and read it in detail. Report back to the class about what you’ve learned.

ACE Aviation. (2011).  ACE History and Background . ACE Aviation.

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Brewster Travel Canada. (2014). About Us – Brewster History . Retrieved from http://www.brewster.ca/corporate/about-brewster/brewster-history/

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British Columbia Ministry of Jobs, Tourism and Skills Training. (2013b). Bill 3 – 2013: Destination BC Corp Act . Retrieved from https://www.leg.bc.ca/39th5th/1st_read/gov03-1.htm

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Destination Canada. (2019).  Tourism Snapshot . Destination Canada.

Dawson, Michael. (2004). Selling British Columbia: Tourism and consumer culture, 1890-1970 . Vancouver, BC: UBC Press.

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Flightglobal. (2002). Sixty years of the jet age. Retrieved from http://www.flightglobal.com/features/jet-age/

Globe and Mail, The. (2014, March 28). Ten things you don’t know about Air Canada. Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/travel/travel-news/10-things-you-likely-dont-know-about-air-canada/article17725796/?page=all

Go2HR. (2020). Industry Development & Resources. Retrieved from https://www.go2hr.ca/getting-know-bcs-tourism-industry/industry-overview/industry-development-resources

Government of Canada. (2006). Building a national tourism strategy. [PDF] Retrieved from https://www.ic.gc.ca/eic/site/034.nsf/vwapj/tourism_e.pdf/$FILE/tourism_e.pdf

Government of Canada. (2013, July 5). Appendix E: Tourism industries in the human resource module . Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/13-604-m/2013072/appe-anne-eng.htm

Griffiths, Ralph, Griffiths, G. E. (1772). Pennant’s tour in Scotland in 1769. The Monthly Review; or, Literary Journal XLVI : 150 . Retrieved from Google Books . 

Gyr, Ueli. (2010, December 3). The history of tourism: Structures on the path to modernity. European History Online (EHO). Retrieved from http://ieg-ego.eu/en/threads/europe-on-the-road/the-history-of-tourism

Hall, C. M., & Page, S. (2006).  The Geography of Tourism and Recreation: Environment, Place and Space . Routledge. http://public.ebookcentral.proquest.com/choice/publicfullrecord.aspx?p=256901.

Latin definition for hospes, hospitis. (2014).In Latdict – Latin Dictionary and Grammar Resources .  Retrieved from http://www.latin-dictionary.net/definition/22344/hospes-hospitis

Library and Archives Canada. (n.d.). Ties that bind: Essay.   A brief history of railways in Canada.  Retrieved from http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/trains/021006-1000-e.html

LinkBC. (2008). Transforming communities through tourism: A handbook for community tourism champions. [PDF] Retrieved from http://linkbc.ca/siteFiles/85/files/TCTT.pdf

MacEachern, A. (2012, August 17). Goin’ down the road: The story of the first cross-Canada car trip. The Globe and Mail . Retrieved from http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/goin-down-the-road-the-story-of-the-first-cross-canada-car-trip/article4487425/

McLeish. (2014, July 23). History of heliskiing in Canada. Retrieved from www.lastfrontierheli.com/news/1607/history-of-heliskiing-in-canada/

Magnes, W. (2010, May 26). The evolution of British Columbia’s tourism regions: 1970-2010 [PDF] . Retrieved from http://linkbc.ca/siteFiles/85/files/LinkBCMagnesPaper2011.pdf

Nunkoo, R. (2016). Toward a More Comprehensive Use of Social Exchange Theory to Study Residents’ Attitudes to Tourism.  Procedia Economics And Finance ,  39 , 588-596. doi: 10.1016/s2212-5671(16)30303-3

Porges, R. (2014, September). Tell me something I don’t know: Promoting the value of tourism. Tourism Drives the Provincial Economy . Presentation hosted by the Tourism Industry Association of BC, Vancouver, BC.

PricewaterhouseCooopers, LLC. (2009). Opportunity BC 2020: Tourism sector. [PDF] Prepared for the BC Business Council. Retrieved from http://www.bcbc.com/content/558/2020_200910_Mansfield_Tourism.pdf

Reynolds, C. (2020). At Least Three Years Until ‘Cataclysmic’ Virus Fallout Recedes: Air Canada.  CTV News .

Shoalts, A. (2011, April). How our national parks evolved: From Grey Owl to Chrétien and beyond, 100 years of Parks Canada.   Canadian Geographic . Retrieved from http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/magazine/apr11/national_parks_evolution.asp

Statistics Canada. (2019).  Travel Between Canada and Other Countries, December 2018 . Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/190221/dq190221c-eng.htm

Theobald, William F. (1998).  Global Tourism (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Butterworth–Heinemann, pp. 6-7.

Thomas Cook Group of Companies. (2014). Thomas Cook history. Retrieved from http://www.thomascook.com/thomas-cook-history/

Tourism Industry Association of BC. (2014). Value of tourism toolkit: Why focus on the value of tourism?  Retrieved from http://www.tiabc.ca/value-of-tourism-toolkit

Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2014, October 14). Travel industry poised to boost Canadian exports: US market and border efficiencies central to growth potential . Retrieved from http://tiac.travel/cgi/page.cgi/_zine.html/TopStories/Travel_Industry_Poised_to_Boost_Canadian_Exports_US_Market_and_Border_Efficiencies_Central_to_Growth_Potential

Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2018a).  Travel & Tourism: The Economic Importance of Travel in Canada . TIAC.

Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2018b).  America: Travel Economy Series . TIAC.

Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2018c).  International Travelers vs. Domestic Travelers – Exploring Differences . TIAC.

Tourism Industry Association of Canada. (2020). Canadian Tourism Reaches New Milestone in 2019 with 22.1 Million Inbound Visitors. Retrieved from https://tiac-aitc.ca/cgi/page.cgi/_zine.html/TopStories/Canadian_tourism_reaches_new_milestone_in_2019_with_22.1_million_inbound_visitors

Tourism Industry Association of Canada, HLT Advisory. (2012). The Canadian tourism industry: A special report [PDF] . Retrieved from http://www.hlta.ca/reports/The_Canadian_Tourism_Industry_-_A_Special_Report_Web_Optimized_.pdf

United Nations Environment Programme. (2003a). Negatives Socio-cultural impacts from tourism . Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/FactsandFiguresaboutTourism/ImpactsofTourism/Socio-CulturalImpacts/NegativeSocio-CulturalImpactsFromTourism/tabid/78781/Default.aspx

United Nations Environment Programme. (2003b). Tourism’s three main impact areas. Retrieved from http://www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/TheTourismandEnvironmentProgramme/FactsandFiguresaboutTourism/ImpactsofTourism/EnvironmentalImpacts/TourismsThreeMainImpactAreas/tabid/78776/Default.aspx

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (1995). Recommendations on tourism statistics. [PDF] Retrieved from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/newsletter/unsd_workshops/tourism/st_esa_stat_ser_M_83.pdf

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2008). Understanding tourism: Basic glossary . Retrieved from http://media.unwto.org/en/content/understanding-tourism-basic-glossary

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2012, May 7). International tourism receipts surpass US$ 1 trillion in 2011. Retrieved from http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2012-05-07/international-tourism-receipts-surpass-us-1-trillion-2011

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2014a). UNWTO world tourism barometer, 12 [PDF] (1). Retrieved from http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom14_04_august_excerpt_0.pdf

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2014b). Who we are. Retrieved from http://www2.unwto.org/content/who-we-are-0

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2019).  International Tourism Highlights, 2019 Edition . UNWTO.

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2020a). Glossary of Tourism Terms . Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/glossary-tourism-terms

United Nations World Tourism Organization. (2020b). International Tourist Numbers Could Fall 60-80% in 2020, UNWTO Reports . Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/news/covid-19-international-tourist-numbers-could-fall-60-80-in-2020

Vancouver Airport Authority. (2020). Facts and Stats . Retrieved from https://www.yvr.ca/en/about-yvr/facts-and-stats

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Travel & Tourism Development Index 2021: Rebuilding for a Sustainable and Resilient Future

4.4 Conclusion to the key findings

The COVID-19 pandemic and its impact have underscored the T&T sector’s vital role in global connectivity and development. In the coming years it will therefore be crucial for T&T stakeholders to devise strategies that make the sector more inclusive, sustainable and resilient.

As the TTDI 2021 results reveal, any such enterprise will require a comprehensive and holistic approach. Creating a better T&T economy is not just about improving infrastructure or offering favourable pricing. It also involves creating better health and hygiene conditions, ensuring natural resources are protected and that the workforce on which the sector depends has access to training and social protection. This necessitates the active participation and coordination of sector and non-sector business, employers and employees, government agencies ranging from tourism and health ministries to local authorities, environmental and conservation groups, and international organizations. Over the course of the pandemic, often uncoordinated travel restrictions and health protocols revealed the difficulty and necessity of such cooperation.

In the future, efforts will need to be made to devise common frameworks for defining and measuring T&T sustainability, including the creation of commonly accepted environment, social and governance metrics. The safe and ethical use of big data will prove fundamental to this cause. Moreover, in an increasingly complex and technology-enabled environment, it will be vital to ensure that developing economies, workers and SMEs are not left behind.

While these challenges may be difficult, the flexibility and adaptation the T&T sector has shown in the past few years also indicates that sector stakeholders are more than capable of rising to the occasion.

Conclusions: Tourism Sustainability and Improvement Plans

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As this book concludes, it is essential to summarise the critical mission we have engaged in: facilitating a shift towards the circular economy within the expanding tourism industry in the Valencian Region. This complex task has involved a multidimensional approach combining rigorous academic research, empirical field analyses, active collaboration with key stakeholders, and the development of the InnoEcoTur Innovation Platform.

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This conclusion brings together the collective wisdom and insights gained, extracting valuable viewpoints and emerging ideas from our core sections: ‘Challenges and Opportunities,’ ‘Best Practices’, and ‘Research, Innovation, Competitiveness, and Production’. The closing remarks not only signify the culmination of our efforts but also serve as a comprehensive summary that outlines the practical steps for advancing towards a more sustainable, circular economy in the region’s tourism industry.

Insights for Action

Our study of the challenges and opportunities has revealed that a significant shift in ‘impact culture’ is essential for a successful transition to a circular economy model. Rather than viewing sustainability as a burdensome obligation, the industry needs to perceive it as a strategic asset that can offer both economic and environmental dividends.

Our ‘Good Practices’ section is more than just a list of successful case studies; it is a template for action. The varied applications of circularity in hotels, restaurants, and even specialised tourism segments like wine and beer tourism, underscored that circular practices are versatile enough to be tailored to different business models and scales.

Finally, our in-depth look into ‘Research, Innovation, Competitiveness and Production’ revealed that the circular economy isn’t just an environmental strategy; it’s a comprehensive business model that can elevate an organisation’s competitive advantage. The relationship between green innovation and corporate performance signalled that businesses which are progressive in their environmental strategies often excel in their market performance as well.

Policy Implications and Future Work

This book was not conceived as an endpoint, but rather as a dynamic tool that can evolve. Building on the foundation laid by InnoEcoTur, the work ahead involves translating these insights into policy initiatives and tangible business practices. Close collaboration between universities, government agencies, and the tourism industry will be vital in making this translation a success to deliver major impact.

The Valencian Innovation Agency, together with the Valencian universities and other political and business actors, can play a driving role in mainstreaming these best practices through policy frameworks. Similarly, future iterations of this project could delve deeper into the application of circular economy principles in emerging tourism sub-sectors and evaluate their long-term impacts.

A Call to Action

We initiated this project with a sense of urgency, aware of the environmental impacts overshadowing the success of the tourism industry. As the project draws to a close, this urgency has been transformed into a sense of possibility. The circular economy isn’t a mere theoretical construct; it’s a roadmap for a sustainable future in Valencian tourism. We hope this book serves as both a guide and a catalyst, inspiring businesses and policymakers alike to enact change that is both profitable and sustainable.

In conclusion, the InnoEcoTur project has initiated a pivotal dialogue, and now it falls to all of us—academics, policymakers, and industry practitioners—to continue to move forward and turn it into actionable change. Here’s to charting a more circular, sustainable, and prosperous course for the Valencian Region’s tourism industry.

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Peiro-Signes, Á., Santamarina-Campos, V. (2024). Conclusions: Tourism Sustainability and Improvement Plans. In: Segarra-Oña, M., Santamarina-Campos, V., Peiró-Signes, Á. (eds) Managing the Transition to a Circular Economy. SpringerBriefs in Business. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-49689-9_11

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Chapter 9. Indigenous Tourism

9.5 Conclusion

Examples like the Nk’Mip suite of businesses and partnerships through the Osoyoos Indian Band demonstrate that BC is on track to become one of the world’s leading destinations for Indigenous tourism experiences. Across Canada, Indigenous peoples and their partners are using Indigenous-developed standards to help preserve and strengthen cultures while building economic benefits for their communities. This is directly in line with the global trend toward linking tourism with the need to uphold Indigenous rights.

An aim of this chapter was to inspire respectful curiosity among students of tourism and offer a glimpse at the complexity and connectedness of Indigenous tourism in the historic and contemporary spheres of the public and private lives of non-Indigenous and Indigenous peoples in Canada, with a primary focus on British Columbia. Frankly, one chapter can never fully reveal the diversity, resiliency, and cultural richness of Indigenous peoples, nor can it fully reveal the depth of harm wrought by past, and ever-present colonial systemic forces that remain entangled with the phenomenon of tourism.

The promise of Indigenous tourism can provide a basis for conversation — and action — among stakeholders with potentially competing aims and differing worldviews. It is important to recognize that these conversations can be emotionally charged, complex and personally unsettling. Nevertheless, the progress that has been made thus far by individuals, communities, businesses, agencies, organizations and governments in developing quality Indigenous tourism opportunities for visitors to British Columbia, Canada and around the world is encouraging. The cumulative results of these efforts demonstrate that properly supported, and most importantly Indigenous-led, Indigenous tourism development can be a powerful force for positive change. Indigenous tourism not only has the potential to contribute to a healthier, more respectful and more prosperous shared future for all, it is arguably one of the best positioned and most appropriate global force to do so.

In recent years, the momentum, growth, and evident growth-potential of Indigenous tourism within the tourism sector has had some of the most significant and genuine change and influence on policy, product, destination development within tourism in BC, Canada, and internationally. These changes — catalyzed through Indigenous tourism — are integral for augmenting and repositioning the role of tourism in general within larger provincial, national and international objectives and efforts for reconciliation and sustainable development. Whether a person or business is Indigenous or otherwise, becoming genuinely engaged in moving Indigenous tourism forward is at the front edge of helping tourism reach it’s positive societal and economic potential both domestically and internationally.

• American Indian: a term used to describe First people in the United States, still used today
• Appropriation: the action of taking something for one’s own use, typically without the owner’s permission
• Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People:  a 2007 statement that set forth the minimum standards for the survival, dignity, and well-being of the indigenous peoples of the world
• Eskimo : a term once used by non-Inuit people to describe Inuit people; no longer considered appropriate in Canada (however, still used in Alaska, US).
• Export-ready criteria: the highest level of market readiness, with sophisticated travel distribution trade channels, to attract out-of-town visitors and highly reliable service standards, particularly with groups
• First Nation: one of the three recognized groups of Canada’s Indigenous peoples (along with Inuit and Métis)
• Indian (or Native Indian): a legal term in Canada, once used to describe Indigenous people but now considered inappropriate
• Indigenous cultural experiences: experiences that are offered in a manner that is appropriate, respectful, and true to the Indigenous culture being portrayed
• Indigenous cultural tourism: Indigenous tourism that incorporates Indigenous culture as a significant portion of the experience in a manner that is appropriate, respectful, and true
• Indigenous tourism: tourism businesses that are majority owned and operated by First Nations, Métis, and Inuit
• Indigenous peoples: groups specially protected in international or national legislation as having a set of specific rights based on their historical ties to a particular territory, and their cultural or historical distinctiveness from other populations. Indigenous peoples are recognized in the Canadian Constitution Act as comprising three groups: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit
• Indigenous Tourism Association of BC (ITBC): the organization responsible for developing and marketing Indigenous tourism experiences in BC in a strategic way; marketing stakeholder members are over 51% owned and operated by First Nations, Métis, and Inuit
• Indigenous Tourism Association of Canada (ITAC): a consortium of over 20 Indigenous tourism industry organizations and government representatives from across Canada
• Inuit: one of the three recognized groups of Indigenous peoples in Canada (along with First Nation and Métis), from the Arctic region of Canada
• Larrakia Declaration: a set of principles developed to guide appropriate indigenous tourism development
• Marae: a communal or sacred centre that serves a religious and social purpose in Polynesian societies
• Market-ready business: a business that goes beyond visitor readiness to demonstrate strengths in customer service, marketing, pricing and payments policies, response times and reservations systems, and so on
• Métis: one of the three recognized groups of Canada’s Indigenous peoples (along with First Nation and Inuit), meaning “to mix”
• United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous People (UNDRIP): a 2007 United Nations statement that set forth the minimum standards for the survival, dignity, and well-being of the indigenous peoples of the world
• Visitor-ready business:  often a start-up or small operation that might qualify for a listing in a tourism directory but is not ready for more complex promotions (like cooperative marketing); may not have a predictable business cycle or offerings
• Reread the Larrakia Declaration mentioned earlier in this chapter. Find one statement that resonates with you either for personal reasons or as a future tourism professional. Why do you feel this principle is important?
• Why have the terms used to describe Indigenous people changed over time? Why is it important for tourism professionals to respect these terms?
• Who are the local Indigenous groups in your community? Are these First Nations, Métis, or Inuit? What are their languages called?
• Suggest three reasons why Indigenous tourism is different from product-based sub-sectors of the industry (e.g., golf tourism, cuisine tourism).
• With trends showing increased numbers of Indigenous Tourism businesses and employment, do you anticipate this having continued sustainable growth within tourism? Why? Why not?
• Are there Indigenous tourism businesses in your area? Try to find at least two (you can use the Indigenous Tourism BC website to locate them). How would you rate their market readiness? Give three reasons for your assessment.
• Indigenous group represented
• Products or services provided
• Years of operation
• Indigenous hosts
• Authenticity of experience
• Market readiness (based on website/marketing materials)
• Notable features
• Compare and contrast the experiences you summarized in question 7. Which businesses do you think are the most successful, and why? Which might be struggling? Which would you like to visit? Why or why not?

Case Study: Tourism and the Red Dzao and Black Hmong in Vietnam

In the Sa Pa region of Vietnam, ethnic minorities, including the Hmong and Red Dao, once depended solely on subsistence farming, timber harvesting, and opium cultivation for their income. The Hmong are indigenous to Southern China, however they were forced to migrate to areas in Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Vietnam in the mid-1800’s.

As tourism to the region has increased since the early 1990’s, so to has the economic opportunities as well as potential and real impacts. However, the benefits of tourism have not been equitably shared with everyone. Many of Sa Pa’s ethnic minorities either do not gain from the burgeoning sector, or are limited to selling handicraft-souvenirs to tourists on the streets.

Community-based tourism projects supported by Capilano University, North Island College, and Ha Noi Open University, and funded by the Canadian International Development Agency and the Pacific Asia Travel Association Foundation, led to an evolution in sustainable practices as well as increased tourism revenues coming into the ethnic minority communities. Projects such as training and homestay development began in the villages of Ta Van and Ta Phin, and after some promising steps forward there, a project was replicated in Black Hmong village of Lao Chai.

Lao Chai used to be just a lunch stop for tourists trekking through the beautiful, mountainous region. Over a period of many years, training and capacity-building activities were undertaken by the local Black Hmong people with the support of project volunteers. The fascinating culture, the hospitality of the community, and new trekking routes changed the role of Lao Chai. With the development of homestays the village is now seen as a suitable place for an overnight stay.

A potential threat to the rights of the ethnic minorities and the village products has been the lack of inclusion and participation in decision making and tourism planning. This was evident during the development of Hoang Lien Son National Park. To protect this regional mountain range, authorities increased the borders of the park, encroaching on traditionally important natural resources for local villages. Additional challenges have arisen because the Vietnamese hold the majority of government positions and own the majority of tourism businesses in the region. Large scale tourism development projects, such as a gondola, have shifted economic priorities to attracting mass tourism markets. Access to education, language and racism are just some of the factors hegemonizing minority people like the Black Hmong.

Despite these challenges, and with the support of students and faculty from Capilano University and Ha Noi Open University, residents of Lao Chai have set up small shops and a restaurant that attract visitors. Homestays have been certified, allowing guests to enjoy an overnight experience in the village as part of a Black Hmong family. Partnerships have been fostered between private sector tour operators and the local communities. Local government and regional tourism authorities have been supportive of tourism development in the villages. As entrepreneurial activities by the local ethnic minorities have proved successful, other individuals and communities have worked to train and make investments in their own tourism ventures.

Watch the video The Black Hmong of Lao Chai Village and the video The Black Hmong and a Different Way of Life on YouTube and answer the following questions:

• What were some of the challenges to establishing tourism in the Lao Chai community?
• Review the Larrakia Declaration mentioned earlier in this chapter. What, in your opinion, are the most important of these principles that need to be understood in order for a project like this to succeed?
• What stakeholders do you think are critical to bring to the table to ensure equitable tourism development?
• Whose responsibility is the ongoing success and sustainability of tourism in Lao Chai village? How might success be measured?
• What lessons from the Sa Pa Case Study could be applied to Indigenous tourism development in BC? List five strategies used or actions taken in Vietnam that could be applied here.

Case Study: Trails of 1885 Bridges Cultures and Builds Tourism

Western Canada in the 1880s was facing a time of rapid change as the buffalo disappeared and the established way of life was rocked to its core. Tensions rose between European settlers and the Métis, whose rights had been eroded. In 1885, the North-West Resistance (formerly known as the North-West Rebellion) concluded with the hanging of resistance leader Louis Riel and eight other Indigenous leaders (Trails of 1885, 2015).

In the years since, residents of Saskatchewan have protected areas from major interpretive centres to remote meadows and hillsides where solitary historic markers recount stories from an almost mythical past.

In 2006, a small group of tourism developers and historic site managers gathered in Saskatoon to discuss how these locations and their stories could be brought together and enhanced to collectively attract more visitors to the region.

As detailed in Cultural and Heritage Tourism: A Handbook for Community Champion s, their project included:

• Creating an inventory of 1885-related sites and stories
• Meeting with site stakeholders to gauge interest in the project
• Acknowledging that First Nations and Métis stories had been previously overlooked
• Creating the 1885 coalition (Elders, accommodations, tourism organizations, tourism attractions, museums, tour operators)
• Reaching beyond Saskatchewan (the site of the main historical event) to Alberta and Manitoba sites related to the story of the North-West Resistance
• Finding funding, striking a steering committee, and finding a project manager
• Navigating culturally sensitive issues including the language of program delivery
• Creating visuals and branding (including the Trails of 1885 brand itself)

The project relied on the participation of various stakeholder groups and the leadership of a local champion. As a result of their efforts, an elk-hide proclamation was signed by First Nations, the Métis Nation, and federal and provincial governments.

Numerous other major events were held throughout the year including the first-ever reenactment of the Battle of Poundmaker Cree Nation and other 1885 ceremonies in communities across the region. The added impact of Trails of 1885 resulted in the largest attendance of the annual Métis homecoming festival (Back to Batoche Days).

To support long-term tourism benefits to the region, these activities were reinforced by capital projects such as highway improvements (to the sites), highway and site signage, large maps at various 1885 sites, and multi-million dollar improvements at Batoche. After this multi-year project, a new non-profit corporation, Trails of 1885 Association, was created to extend the work into the future and promote the region as a long-term tourism draw.

According to one of the initiative’s leaders, “the project has certainly met one of its main goals—to increase visitation and visitor satisfaction, while developing First Nations and Métis cultural awareness locally, regionally, provincially, and nationally” (LinkBC, 2012, p. 66).

Visit the site at Trails of 1885 website and answer the following questions:

• List two attractions in each of the three provinces that span this project. What do they have in common?
• List five stakeholder groups who participated in the development of Trails of 1885. How might their interests differ? How might they align? Name three benefits of having these partners work together.
• What kind of tours are available to visitors wanting to learn more about this time in Canada’s history?
• Based on the website, where would you say the Trails of 1885 falls on the readiness scale (visitor ready, market ready, export ready)? Why would you classify it in this way?
• Go back to the Larrakia Declaration and create a checklist made up of the statements. In what ways did this project adhere to the principles set out in the declaration? Are there any ways the project could have done better?

Image Credit

Cranbrook by Province of  British Columbia on Flickr is licensed under a CC  BY-NC-ND 2.0 licence.

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A set of principles developed to guide appropriate Indigenous tourism development.

Introduction to Tourism Copyright © 2020 by NSCC is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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