worms that travel together

This Slithering Creature Is Actually Made of Hundreds of Larvae

We dare you to look closer.

When Ian Stevenson returned home from a walk on Sunday morning, he thought he saw an earthworm with debris stuck to it. He probably didn’t expect to see what he actually saw: A rope of wriggling worms snaking along his walkway. Looking at the nightmarish scene, the famous line from Dawn of the Dead might come to mind: “When there’s no more room in Hell, the dead will walk the Earth.”

Stevenson, an assistant professor of neuroscience at the University of Connecticut, tweeted a video of what he saw, which appears to be a slithering mass of worms moving as one.

“I have a serious fear of snakes so the first video was to get a closeup and confirm that they were insects,” Stevenson tells Inverse . “After that I was just curious — emergent behavior like flocking and swarming is super fascinating. I completely understand some of the squeamish reactions the video got, though.”

He asked his followers for their help figuring out what was going on: “Anyone on science twitter know what this thing on my walkway is? Diptera larvae migration/earthworm biomimicry? Deleted scene from Akira ?”

It turns out this flowing mass of semi-transparent creatures is not demonic in origin (probably), and as Stevenson suspected, the larva mass’s hypnotic motion illustrates a highly efficient collective strategy for locomotion. Take a look:

A fellow neuroscientist named Heather Read, Ph.D. replied to the video, identifying the phenomenon as dark-winged fungus gnat larvae , which are known to move in this kind of snake-like mass. So Stevenson’s initial guess, that the larvae were some kind of Diptera, might be correct. Diptera is the taxonomic order to which flies belong to, and the fungus gnat is a type of fly.

But why do they move like a snake from hell? It turns out this mass movement, in which the larvae crawl over each other like a conveyor belt, is a process the species uses to maximize the entire swarm’s speed.

In 2013, Aatish Bhatia reported in Wired that this strategy, which is also employed by other caterpillar species, helps the entire mass move 1.5 times faster than an individual can move, if it’s a two-layer mass. And if it’s a three-layer mass, the group can move nearly twice as fast as an individual can. Bhatia likens it to walking on a moving sidewalk at the airport, but with the major advantage that it can go anywhere it pleases.

“Unlike a typical conveyor belt, this one never runs out, because the caterpillars keep disassembling and re-assembling it,” he wrote.

In short, since the larvae on top of the pile crawl over their neighbors — who are also moving — the second layer is moving twice as fast. But since they also have to spend time underneath once they work their way all the way up front, they will spend part of the time going normal speed. For a two-layer mass, this averages out to about 1.5 times the speed of an individual.

In Stevenson’s video, though, the fungus gnat larvae appear to be moving in a mass greater than just two layers deep, so their speed advantage is probably greater than 1.5 times. Regardless, we can rest assured that this writhing rope is not a sign of an impending zombie apocalypse. And in fact, it’s not even that big.

“The video makes it look huge, but in-person it’s just a cute little wriggly swarm,” says Stevenson. “Not that I’m volunteering to touch it.”

All About Worms

Your place to find out all about worms, caterpillars, and other (not so) creepy crawlies.

Worms that Crawl Together

A reader wrote to us recently about a group of worms that he observed moving together – that is, the worms were seen crawling “as one,” such that the worms appeared to be traveling “one over the other to get to their destination.” The reader further observed that the worms were relatively small, and that the group consisted of about 50 worms. What type of worms move together, and further, why do worms crawl together as a group anyhow?

This is an interesting topic, not least because recent studies have spoken directly to the topic of worms traveling together in groups. Researchers at the University of Liege observed that annelids (a.k.a. “ringed worms,” not to be confused with the ailment ringworm ), that large phylum of segmented worms that includes earthworms, work together when they are traveling. In the study, several worms were placed in a chamber, and rather than each exiting the chamber at random, the worms appeared to move together as a group.

Further, the researchers conjectured that worms work together based on their sense of touch, not on any sort of chemical trail that they leave behind. They base this hypothesis on the fact that after one worm navigated its way to food, subsequent worms did not follow the first worm’s path to the food. Since the worms didn’t follow the route of their predecessors, it is believed that the first worm didn’t leave any sort of chemical trail behind it that other worms could track. However, when two worms are placed in a maze together, they tend to navigate the maze together, suggesting that the worms were following each other based on touch. In a sense, worms make collective decisions with respect to their movements, and these collective decisions are arrived at through worms touching each other (presumably because some primitive signal is communicated this way). Worms travel in “herds,” which is basically what our reader described.

The new research also sheds light on the phenomenon of worms clumping together, which is often seen in compost bins. The traditional thought was that worms were joining together as a defense against predation or to avoid freezing. Perhaps this is true, but the worms may also be joining together for the sake of communication – to plan their next trip, as it were.

As we mentioned earlier, the study focused on annelids, and because the reader wasn’t particularly detailed in his description of the worms he saw, it’s hard to say whether this study speaks to the group movement of the worms he saw. However, even if our reader isn’t dealing with annelids, perhaps the strange movement he observed is nevertheless caused by worms communicating by touch.

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3 thoughts on “ Worms that Crawl Together ”

Have you herd of what we call a river worm we dig them with a tatter fork 4 prongs anyhow some are green & stink others are reddish to brown & they are not quite like a earth worm and when I put on a hook they are sticky and sometimes the sticky stuff almost glows in the dark can you please help identifying them & would it be easier to pound a stick in the ground and use a rasp or a wide file to call them to top I have had them come up from pounding stick in ground and hitting stick causing vibrations

I am working on a project on the beach in Brazil . One morning when I arrived I noticed a group of worms crawling over each other heading to the jungle. This group was well over 200 worms.

I have found on my sidewalk for two mornings straight worms that crawl together. They are in a long line moving all together as one. They are freaking me out. I kill with Raid and the next morning they are there again. Help!

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Ten Things to Know about Earthworms

earthworm, northern forest, NWF, National Wildlife Federation, gardening, nightcrawler, invasive species

Anyone prone to working the soil knows that upturning the earth exposes these shiny, wigging, pinkish to brownish tubular life forms, sending them thrashing in hasty retreat into the comforting, moist darkness of the soil.

Are the worms a garden’s friend or foe?

That depends.

Here are 10 things you may want to know about earthworms.

Earthworms come in a seemly infinite variety— around 6,000 species worldwide . One of the most familiar of them, the sort you may see in your garden, is commonly known as the night crawler (it typically surfaces after dark), the angleworm (its makes popular bait for fishing) or the rain worm (it leaves waterlogged soil after storms).
Of the more than 180 earthworm species found in the United States and Canada, 60 are invasive species , brought over from the Old World, including the night crawler.
Lacking lungs or other specialized respiratory organs, earthworms breathe through their skin .
The skin exudes a lubricating fluid that makes moving through underground burrows easier and helps keep skin moist. One Australian species can shoot fluid as far as 12 inches through skin pores.

earthworm, nightcrawler, gardening, invasive species, northern forests

Baby worms emerge from the eggs tiny but fully formed . They grow sex organs within the first two or three months of life and reach full size in about a year. They may live up to eight years, though one to two is more likely.
Full size for an earthworm varies among species, ranging from less than half an inch long to nearly 10 fee t . The latter monsters don’t occur in U.S. backyards—you’ll have to go to the Tropics to see one of them. The homegrown versions top out at around 14 inches.
The glaciers that crawled across Canada into the northern tier of the lower 48 states during the most recent ice age wiped out earthworms in those areas. In other parts of the United States, you may find native earthworm species, but the worms living in the regions scoured by glaciers are invaders from overseas , brought here intentionally by early settlers on the assumption that the worms would improve the soil, or carried accidentally in shipments of plants or even in dirt used as ballast in ships.
The earthworm’s digestive system is a tube running straight from the mouth, located at the tip of the front end of the body, to the rear of the body, where digested material is passed to the outside. Species vary in what they eat, but by and large their devouring of fallen leaves and/or soil allows the worms to move nutrients such as potassium and nitrogen into the soil. Also, worm movements within the earth create burrows that encourage the passage of air and a loosening of the soil. Good things, right? Well, maybe not. Which brings us to 10.
The northern forest evolved after the glaciers retreated, yielding an ecosystem that does not benefit from earthworms. These forests require a deep layer of slowly decomposing leaves and other organic matter called “duff” that overlays the soil. When earthworms invade these forests , they quickly eat up the duff, with the result that nutrients become less available to young, growing plants, and the soil, instead of aerating and loosening, becomes more compact. The combined effects of such developments have resulted in damage to trees such as sugar maples and to many forest herbs and understory plants, such as trillium, rare goblin ferns, trout lilies and other forest-floor species. In some areas, oak forests have been overrun by buckthorn, and in others the presence of earthworms has allowed the invasion of Japanese barberry. As duff disappears, so do the insects and other small creatures that depend on it for survival, with the result that animals such as salamanders lose a key food source and face population declines. Earthworm burrows also may speed the passage of water through forest soil, another change that might be a benefit to farmland or a garden with compacted soil but that is a negative in a northern forest .

BONUS FACT : Although eradicating earthworms in areas they have already invaded is virtually impossible in practical terms (the measures that wipe out earthworms, such as spraying with pesticides, also kill many other species), we can all help protect as-yet uninvaded ecosystems by keeping worms out of such areas. If you use earthworms for composting and live in a region near forests that have not been hit by earthworms, you can help by dropping use of the worms. Also, to avoid spreading earthworm eggs when fertilizing with composted materials, freeze your compost for at least a week before using it—freezing will kill eggs as well as the worms. If you use earthworms for bait fishing, don’t dump leftover worms onto the soil at the end of a day’s fishing. Remove them from the site, or throw them far enough into a pond that they will die before they can reach to shore. When planting new shrubs or trees in your garden or yard, examine any earth ball or potting soil for evidence of worms.

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The secret world of earthworms: meet the tiger worm and the nightcrawler

Reader in Ecology, University of Central Lancashire

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Kevin Richard Butt does not work for, consult, own shares in or receive funding from any company or organization that would benefit from this article, and has disclosed no relevant affiliations beyond their academic appointment.

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Most people are aware of earthworms, but probably give them little thought. Some have a notion they are “good for the soil”. Others regard them with distaste and think of slimy animals associated with decay. But these alien-looking animals are remarkable and control the foundations of life from their subterranean world.

Earthworms engineer the soil that grows the food we eat and the flowers we love to look at. Indeed, they are the primary drivers in soil formation.

The earthworm gut is a bit like a biological reactor where numerous processes take place. The combining and processing of organic matter and mineral soil produces earthworm casts (faeces), both below and above ground which increases soil fertility. Burrows in the soil also allow water and air to circulate freely.

Earthworms are not only vital to the ecosystem, they are also fascinating animals.

Anyone venturing out in spring or autumn after overnight rain may find dying earthworms on hardstanding. People sometimes think these animals have left their burrows to avoid drowning, but that’s not even close to the truth. Having no lungs or gills, earthworms breathe through their skins . Our lungs diffuse oxygen from the air we breathe in, but oxygen can diffuse just as easily through earthworm skin from water. Earthworms can live underwater for days.

So why do they come to the soil surface during rain? Well, it’s most likely to disperse and find new places to live away from close relatives to avoid inbreeding. The vibrations of raindrops encourage them to come to the surface – a wet ground is easier to cross than a dry one.

Nighttime offers some protection from predators. The worms seen by us on the pavement the following day are those that failed to find a new place to burrow down. Some earthworm predators exploit this behaviour through “foot trembling”. Gulls are prime examples and stomp their webbed feet on wet areas of grassland to fool worms into surfacing in a belief that it is raining. This technique works very well.

Scientists have identified 6,000 species of earthworm, around 30 of which live in Britain. All of them can be divided into three groups. The first live in organic-rich material, like a compost bin. These include the tiger worm or brandling ( Eisenia fetida ) and are great at breaking down material such as household vegetable peelings.

Other, unpigmented earthworms eat soil and make horizontal burrows close to the soil surface. These include the grey worm ( Aporrectodea caliginosa ).

The third group are larger, deep burrowers (around one metre below the surface) such as the dew worm or nightcrawler ( Lumbricus terrestris ). They use their mouth to pull leaves into their permanent, vertical burrows.

The actions of these groups of worms benefit each other. For example, the feeding and burrowing of the nightcrawler enriches the soil that the grey worm eats. Additionally, all earthworms have complex interactions with soil microorganisms like bacteria and fungi, which are found in large numbers in their casts.

Finding a mate

All earthworms are hermaphrodite (have both male and female reproductive organs) but some produce young from unfertilised eggs. The majority copulate underground, but a few, including the nightcrawler, mate on the soil surface, which is because their vertical burrows stop them meeting below the soil.

Scientists have observed an interesting behaviour above the soil that happens before copulation, when reciprocal sperm exchange happens (each fertilises the other). In worms like the night crawler, the two worms “visit” the burrow of their prospective partner with their head end, while keeping their tails in their home burrows. Each can stretch a long way (about 30 cm).

These burrow visits may last from 30 seconds to several minutes. Visits take place in both directions before copulation, which happens facing in opposite directions and may last three hours. Further research has demonstrated that only worms of a similar size tend to mate. They deduce the size of a potential mate by feeling its burrow entrance.

As hermaphrodites, it is in the interest of each worm to be both a successful “mother” and “father”. This increases the number of young produced and therefore the survival rate. All worms produce cocoons from their “saddle” (the raised area on their bodies). They make a tube of protein which slips off their front end after filling it with their own eggs and stored sperm from a partner. They then deposit it underground as a lemon-shaped cocoon.

This hatches after some weeks, depending on the species. Some species of worm surround the cocoon with leaf fragments as a first meal for their young.

During mating, the earthworms lock together by piercing each other’s skin with setae (hair-like projections from the skin) to create a close fit for sperm to flow between them along a groove.

After mating the two worms separate by withdrawing into their burrow with a “tug-of-war”, ripping out these setae from the skin of the partner. If unequal in size, one would completely pull the other from its burrow and leave it unable to return and therefore be eaten by a predator.

Strategies in drying soils

Earthworms evolved mucus-covered skin which retains moisture and makes movement through the soil smoother. But, as soft-bodied and water-rich organisms, they are at the mercy of soil conditions. Under adverse soil conditions, such as when soils become too dry (in summer) or too cold (in winter), earthworms resort to survival strategies, evolved over millennia .

These include waiting at the bottom of a deep burrow where the soil is damper and entering a resting state curled in a knotted ball in a mucus-lined chamber in the soil (a form of hibernation).

Earthworms have evolved to produce cocoons that can stay dormant until conditions improve. The cocoons hatch when the soil is moist and warm and the small emerging worms grow to maturity, which can take up to a year in some species. With changes in climate happening and predicted to worsen, earthworms face an uncertain future.

This should concern everyone - our future is interlocked with earthworms’.

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Creature Feature: Wriggling Ways of the Earthworm

Our Creature Feature series is brought to you through our collaborations between education and citizen science. In this post, the Biomimicry Institute describes how earthworms get around as part of their mission to bring nature-inspired ideas to modern-day challenges.

Earthworm in Mexico. Photo by dani_etxe (CC BY-NC-3.0). Submitted to the Great Nature Project.

By Jeanette Lim from the Biomimcry Institute

Earthworms moving about through dirt and grass are a common sight in gardens, backyards, and parks everywhere. As they move through the soil, earthworms feed on organic matter and create networks of tunnels lined with the undigested waste they leave behind. This activity is beneficial to the soil ecosystem, as it aerates and adds nutrients to the soil.

How do earthworms create these underground tunnels? Think of the kinds of tools that we use to dig into the ground. Shovels, backhoes, and other tools all have rigid structures that can plunge through the soil. Even our hands take advantage of their bony structure to dig and push dirt around. But earthworms are invertebrates that lack a rigid bony skeleton inside their soft bodies. However—and this is the amazing part—they do have a strategy that enables them to dig and navigate through small spaces in the soil. They just use a different kind of skeleton—one filled with fluid.

Look closely at an earthworm and you’ll see that its body is lined with rings. The earthworm’s body is made up of a series of small segments, each separated by a partition, giving the worm this ringed appearance. Each segment is shaped like a cylinder and is filled with fluid that can’t flow into neighboring segments or be compressed, so the volume of the segment always stays the same.

But while the volume of the segment doesn’t change, the shape of the segment can. Body shape changes are what’s behind earthworm wriggling. The shape of each segment is controlled by two different sets of muscles: circular muscles wrap around the segment’s walls, and when they contract the segment gets skinnier and longer. Longitudinal muscles run along the length of the segment, and when they contract the segment gets shorter and fatter.

This shape-shift between long and skinny to short and fat happens because the segments are filled with fluid. Like a water balloon, squeezing the middle of the balloon pushes water to the ends, making them swell. To keep shape changes from getting too extreme in the worm body, strong connective-tissue fibers spiral around the segments. These fibers reinforce the muscular walls and keep bending movements smooth.

Muscles in this kind of structure, called a hydrostatic skeleton, don’t apply forces to bones. Instead, they apply forces to internal compartments filled with fluid under pressure. In earthworms, each segment can move independently, so that alternating contractions between the two different sets of muscles in many different segments create shape changes all along the body. This produces accordion-like body movements that help the worm push through soil and maneuver through small spaces within.

What can humans learn from this resourceful strategy?

How might we learn from the earthworm’s wriggling ways to solve human challenges? Perhaps we can apply the earthworm’s strategy to construction, medicine, or disaster management. For example, the way the earthworm moves its body could inform designs for drills, medical devices, or rescue equipment that needs to navigate through tight spaces.

Have you ever looked to nature for inspiration to solve a problem? You can see more examples of how to learn from nature by browsing the AskNature collection of Great Nature Project photos.

Submit your photos of earthworms or any other living thing to the Great Nature Project . You can keep track of your observations and get help from other people to identify what you saw. Use our nature missions to guide your exploration. Browse or search the photo stream to see other amazing living things. Create an account to your share your photos of plants and animals.

More to learn and do:

Interested in classroom activities related to biomimicry? Find free resources on the Biomimicry Institute’s Biomimicry Education Network .

To learn more about the earthworm’s cool strategy and how we might apply it to make our human world more sustainable, check out AskNature .

Interested in contributing to AskNature? Learn more about sharing graphics, interning, and more.

Jeanette Lim is the AskNature content coordinator and gets to talk about nature’s wonders and inspiration with other nature enthusiasts. She has a newfound appreciation for the earthworms she sees in her vegetable garden.

Jeanette Lim works for the Biomimicry Institute and is a frequent guest blogger for the Great Nature Project.

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Thousands of California worms wriggle into super blobs

Blackworm blobs don't need a leader to get to where they're going.

A blob of blackworms cluster together in a laboratory dish.

It wriggles. It squirms. It moves like some sort of multi-tentacled horror from the black lagoon. It's … a blob of blackworms. And just in time for Halloween !

California blackworms ( Lumbriculus variegatus ) are a species of unassuming aquatic worm that typically grow no more than about 1.5 inches (4 centimeters) long. But when threatened by environmental stressors — such as drought — these worms braid themselves together into masses to preserve moisture and protect one another. That's creepy enough, but these masses can also move in a form of what researchers call "emergent locomotion." No one's in charge, but the worm blobs can still steer themselves to more comfortable environments simply by dint of each worm's interactions with their nearest neighbors.

Now, researchers have figured out that the worms pull this off with a carefully calibrated mix of wiggliness and clinginess.

"We found there is a very fine balance required," said Chantal Nguyen, a postdoctoral researcher at the BioFrontiers Institute of the University of Colorado Boulder.

The results could be used to develop soft, swarm-like robotics with many small, simple parts that work together.

Related: Bizarre 'worm tornado' in New Jersey has scientists baffled

Blob of worms

Lots of different kinds of worms cluster together for safety when their environment becomes hostile ( take a peek at any composting blog for more on earthworm "balling"). But few are documented to move as one when they're in these clusters. California blackworms can mass together by the thousands, though, and the resulting blobs seem to have a mind of their own, according to research published in February in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . That research found that blobs of blackworms essentially act like a non-Newtonian fluid, or a fluid that changes thickness depending on the amount of stress it's under. (The classic kitchen concoction of this fluid involves a mixture of cornstarch and water, which feels solid if you squeeze it suddenly and liquid if you run a finger through it slowly.) In other words, a whole bunch of worms clinging tightly to each other act a bit like a solid, but if they loosen up a bit, they're kind of like a liquid.

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Nguyen joined the Georgia Tech researchers Yasemin Ozkan-Aydin and M. Saad Bhamla, who led that study, in order to model the movement of these worm blobs.

"It looks really cool to see just this giant blob of these worms kind of sliding around," Nguyen said. She had been working on modeling collective systems, so the opportunity to apply that work to the worms seemed intriguing.

First, the research team conducted experiments on individual worms to see how they moved in different water temperatures. This was to gather real-world worm movement data into their eventual computer model. In water of 86 degrees Fahrenheit (30 degrees C) or lower, the worms were prone to explore. They typically set out in a straight line until they hit the wall of the dish they were in, and then nosed around the edge. Above 86 F, the worms coiled up and moved about very little. Temperatures of over 93.2 F (34 C) proved dangerous — and eventually fatal — to the living worms.

Next, the researchers studied how real worm blobs reacted in different temperatures. At low temperatures of 50 F (10 C) and lower, the worms clung to each other in a tight mass. At 77 F (25 C), they relaxed a bit into a loose mass, but stayed together. At high temperatures near the edge of survivability, they quickly disentangled into individual coils.

Model worms

The researchers then used these behaviors to create a computer model of worms that could bend, self-propel and interact with one another. The model was in two-dimensions, not three, so it wasn't precisely representative of blackworm blobs, Nguyen said; — in deep enough water, the blobs can be spherical. But the researchers were able to find that a mixture of self-propelled wriggling and wormy clinginess was able to reproduce the kind of motion seen in real worm blobs. The researchers created a temperature gradient in their virtual worm world so that one side of the model worm-blob enclosure was cooler than the other. They first simulated a single worm and found that the automatic movements of the worm in different temperatures led to the worm "finding" the cool side: In cooler waters, the worms straightened out and crawled forward, creating a sort of feedback loop such that the cooler the enclosure was, the more the worm could direct its movement straight ahead.

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The researchers then simulated a worm blob. They found that the blobs, too, tended to move to cooler waters. But to do so, they had to wiggle just enough to move without breaking apart their congregation.

"Only for a very fine balance between the active forces and the attraction between worms were we able to see the worm blob move as a collective from the hot to the cold," Nguyen said.

The next step is to make the model 3D, Nguyen said, and then to start developing robots based on the worms' weird movements. The robotics field has a lot of interest in swarm robots, which are simple individual robots that interact with one another to complete more complex tasks than they could do on their own. There is also a lot of interest in soft robots inspired by nature. Thanks to their pliability and flexibility, soft robotics are promising technology for biomedicine, Nguyen said. The worm blobs combine both swarm robotics and soft robotics, she said.

"A lot of current swarm robotic systems consist of rigid elements," she said, "and thus soft swarm robotics is very much an open field of research."

The findings appeared Sept. 30 in the journal Frontiers in Physics .

Originally published on Live Science.

Editor's note: This article was updated to state that some of the researchers are from Georgia Tech, not the University of Georgia as had been previously stated.

Stephanie Pappas is a contributing writer for Live Science, covering topics ranging from geoscience to archaeology to the human brain and behavior. She was previously a senior writer for Live Science but is now a freelancer based in Denver, Colorado, and regularly contributes to Scientific American and The Monitor, the monthly magazine of the American Psychological Association. Stephanie received a bachelor's degree in psychology from the University of South Carolina and a graduate certificate in science communication from the University of California, Santa Cruz.

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Australian Earthworms

Author(s) Dr Rob Blakemore
Updated 25/02/19
Read time 2 minutes

Worldwide, approximately 6,000 species of earthworms are described in 20 families, eight of which are represented in Australia.

Class Oligochaeta - Phylum Annelida

Worldwide, approximately 6,000 species of earthworms are described in 20 families. In Australia, earthworm populations consist of native and introduced species from a total of eight families:

Moniligastridae
Glossoscolecidae
Lumbricidae
Ocnerodrilidae
Acanthodrilidae*
Octochaetidae*
Benhamiidae
Megascolecidae*

Australian natives are estimated to total 1,000 species belonging to three of these families (marked with an asterisk), while the 80 or so introduced species, have representatives from all eight.

Earthworms are found in soils, leaf litter, under stones and logs, and sometimes in trees. They tend to be more numerous in the wetter, more heavily vegetated areas. Native species are primarily found in undisturbed areas but some can tolerate cultivation and a few species persist in deserts.

Family Lumbricidae

The Lumbricidae are native to Britain and other northern temperate countries in North America and Asia. Today this family is known from all over the world and such earthworms are called 'peregrine' species because of their great ability to travel from place to place. Once introduced into a new area, they have an amazing ability to breed rapidly and colonise their new home, often surpassing the original native species.

The Lumbricidae are distinguishable from other earthworm families in having the openings of the male reproductive ducts on segment 15 (counting from the head end), well in front of a glandular swelling on the skin, called the clitellum. (The segments are the rings, separated by grooves, which divide the body from head to tail.) The clitellum is responsible for producing the envelope, or cocoon, in which the eggs are deposited.

The lumbricids were introduced to Australia during the last two centuries (since European settlement). They may have come here in soil around introduced fruit trees and shrubs brought here by the early settlers. For example, Aporrectodea caliginosa is one of the commoner pasture worms that are washed on to roadways after heavy rains. Another introduced species is the deep-burrowing Lumbricus terrestris which, although known only from northern Tasmania, is the species most often used in schools as a typical example of an earthworm - in preference to the many available native earthworm species. A smaller, reddish species that frequents compost heaps is Eisenia fetida which is sometimes called the "tiger worm"; because of its ringed appearance.

These are just three examples of the many 'peregrine' earthworms, each with its own unique characteristics.

Families Acanthodrilidae, Octochaetidae and Megascolecidae

Australian native worms are drawn from these three families. The first two are more common in the tropics and arid regions, while megascolecids are more common in the southern states. In general, Australian natives can be recognised by counting the number of segments in front of the clitellum (a magnifying glass is needed). If the clitellum starts on segment 14, the worm will either be a native species or one of the introduced tropical species of these families.

Some Australian native earthworms grow to an enormous size. Besides the well-known 'Gippsland Giant', Megascolides australis , cited in the Guinness Book of Records at 3 metres, others also grow large. A species of Digaster found near Kyogle in north-eastern New South Wales, often grows to a length of more than 150 cm and is as thick as a garden hose. Notoscolex grandis from Burrawang, eastern New South Wales, has been recorded as reaching a length of 100 cm. Large worms also occur in Queensland through to Tasmania, and these are all different species.

Many gardeners in New South Wales may have seen fairly slender but muscular, light-brown earthworms, 10 cm -15 cm long, which, when brought to the surface, move off rapidly with an eel-like motion, bending the body vigorously from side to side. These worms are either Amynthas corticis or Amynthas gracilis which are the most common introduced megascolecids found around the world. They can be identified by the presence of a single female pore in the middle underside of the fourteenth segment, with a ring-shaped clitellum embracing this segment as well as segments 15 and 16. Also, the setae are arranged in a ring around each segment, and not merely on the undersurface as in lumbricids and some other megascolecids. These worms are capable of parthenogenesis, or 'virgin birth' (which also occurs in many rival species of lumbricids): a feature of obvious advantage to a potential pioneer.

Only a few native Australian earthworms have been successfully cultivated commercially (for example Anisochaeta dorsalis , sold in bait shops), and they are rarely considered for their benefit in increasing soil fertility or for supplying teaching institutions with study material.

Where are earthworms found?

Earthworms are mainly free-living terrestrial (land dwelling), or freshwater worms. They are found in soil, leaf litter and under stones and logs in most habitats, including arid areas, but most species are found in wetter, more heavily vegetated regions. Native Australian earthworms are often eliminated by the clearing of natural vegetation, and many introduced species (primarily from Europe) dominate disturbed habitats, such as suburban gardens and pasture.

How do earthworms burrow?

Earthworms burrow by passing successive waves of contraction and relaxation along the musculature of the body wall. They have no external appendages other than the protrusible setae (bristles that stick out), which are used to anchor the worm firmly in its burrow. Earthworms move along by extending the front end of the body, taking hold of the substrate using the front bristles, then retracting the bristles at the rear of the body and drawing up the rear end.

How do earthworms breathe?

Earthworms breathe in the same way as their aquatic ancestors. They don't have lungs, but instead breathe through the skin. In order for gas exchange to take place this way, the outermost layers of an earthworm are thin and must be kept moist. Mucous is excreted onto the skin to keep it moist. It is also wet by body fluid which is excreted through 'dorsal pores' located along the dorsal (back) midline in the grooves between the segments. This need for moisture restricts their activities to a burrowing life in damp soil. They emerge only at night when the evaporating potential of the air is low, and retreat deep underground during hot, dry weather. Light-sensitive tissues near the worm's head enable it to detect light, so they can avoid venturing out by day.

How do earthworms feed?

Most earthworms are scavengers that feed on dead organic matter. They feed by passing soil through the gut, from which nourishment is extracted, or by eating organic debris, including leaves accumulated on the surface of the soil. This method of feeding does not require highly developed sense organs (such as eyes, which would be of little use underground) or food-catching structures, and earthworms never possess the often very remarkable and versatile head appendages developed in some of the free-swimming, carnivorous marine polychaete worms.

The digestive system is divided into a number of regions, each with a special function. Food that enters the mouth is swallowed by the action of the muscular pharynx, then passes through a narrow esophagus that has three swellings on each side. These are the calciferous glands that excrete calcium carbonate to dispose of excess calcium obtained in the food. The food then moves to the crop, which seems to serve only as a storage organ, and then to the muscular gizzard. With the aid of very tiny stones swallowed by the worm, the gizzard grinds the food thoroughly. Food is then digested by juices secreted by gland cells in the intestine. It is absorbed by blood vessels in the intestinal wall and from there distributed to the rest of the body.

Earth consumed by worms is deposited on the surface of the ground, in the form of 'castings'. The effects of worms on the soil are many. The earth of the castings and the burrows themselves are exposed to the air and, therefore, aerate the soil, improve drainage and increase its water holding capacity. The soil is 'cultivated' by being ground up in the worm's gizzard. Leaves and other matter pulled underground, and the addition of excretory wastes from worms, introduce organic matter and nutrients.

Earthworms have a considerable influence on the physical structure of the soil by their active burrowing and ingestion of the soil. This results in mixing of the surface and sub-surface soils. Their presence or absence in any soil, and the overall species composition, may also reflect environmental changes that are not easily recognised using physical or chemical means. This provides a sensitive measure of soil pollution.

How do earthworms reproduce?

All earthworms are hermaphrodites (that is, a single individual can produce both male and female gametes, the eggs and sperm). Eggs are produced when two earthworms inseminate each other during mating. Hermaphroditism makes possible two exchanges of sperms, instead of only one, when two individuals meet.

The sex organs, which produce the eggs and the sperm, are open to the ventral, or lower, surface on particular segments, which differ depending upon the species. There are two male openings, and two pairs of small sacs, the sperm receptacles. During mating, these receive sperm from the other partner. The eggs, formed in a pair of ovaries, are released from the oviducts into one of two tiny pores: the female genital openings. The male and female sexual openings (the gonopores) are situated on or near the clitellum. This ring-like, glandular swelling secretes a cocoon for the reception of the eggs.

Mating occurs usually when the ground is wet following rain. Earthworms may emerge and travel over the surface of the ground before they mate, but most often they merely protrude the anterior end and mate with a worm in an adjacent burrow. The two worms join the lower surfaces of their anterior ends, with heads pointing in opposite directions. Mucous is secreted until each worm is enclosed in a tube of slime. When the sperm is released, it is carried backwards in longitudinal groves that are converted into tubes by the mucous sheath to the sperm receptacles of the mating partner. The worms then separate and egg-laying and fertilisation occur later.

Egg-laying starts when the gland cells of the clitellum secrete a mucous ring that is moved forward over the body of the worm. As this passes the opening to the oviducts, it receives several ripe eggs and a quantity of albuminous fluid (like the white of an egg). Then, as it passes the sperm receptacles nearer the anterior end, it receives sperm that was deposited there previously. Fertilisation of the eggs takes place within the mucous ring, which finally slips past the anterior tip of the worm and becomes closed at each end to form a sealed capsule, called an 'egg cocoon'.

Egg cocoons are deposited in the soil. The fertilised eggs develop directly into young worms, which then escape through the egg membrane and eat the nourishing albumen contained in the cocoon. This enables them to increase rapidly in size until they are big enough to escape from the protective cocoon and begin life in the soil. The juveniles grow continuously until they reach adult size.

Most earthworms possess amazing powers of repairing body damage caused by predators or by accident. If a worm is torn or cut in two (for instance when a bird catches the head end of a worm protruding from its burrow) it can regenerate the missing end.

Barnes, R. D. 1980. Invertebrate Zoology. Saunders College, Philadelphia, USA. Jamieson, B. G. M. 2001 (Supplement). Native Earthworms of Australia (Megascolecidae, Megascolecinae). CD-ROM. Science Publishers, Inc. Enfield, New Hampshire: USA.
Murphy, D. 1993. Earthworms in Australia: a blueprint for a better environment . Hyland House: South Melbourne.
Blakemore, R. 1997. First 'common earthworm' found in Tasmania. Invertebrata . No. 9, November, 1997: 1-5. URL: http://www.qvmag.tas.gov.au/zoology/invertebrata/printarchive/printtext/inv9aitems.html
Blakemore, R. 2000. Tasmanian Earthworms . CD-ROM Monograph with Review of World Families. 'VermEcology', PO BOX 414 Kippax 2615. Canberra, December, 2000. Pp. 800 (incl. 222 figs).
Blakemore, R. 2002. Cosmopolitan Earthworms - an Eco-Taxonomic Guide to the Peregrine Species of the World . VermEcology , PO BOX 414 Kippax, ACT 2615, Australia. Pp. 506 (incl. 80 figs).

The Australian Museum respects and acknowledges the Gadigal people as the First Peoples and Traditional Custodians of the land and waterways on which the Museum stands.

Image credit: gadigal yilimung (shield) made by Uncle Charles Chicka Madden

Although native to Europe, earthworms are found throughout North America and western Asia.

Earthworms do not live in deserts or regions where there is permafrost or permanent snow and ice. Typically only a few inches (7 or 8 centimeters) long, some members of this species have been known to grow to a snakelike 14 inches (35 centimeters).

Earthworms' bodies are made up of ringlike segments called annuli. These segments are covered in setae, or small bristles, which the worm uses to move and burrow. These terrestrial worms typically dwell in soil and moist leaf litter. Their bodies are characterized by a "tube within a tube" construction, with an outer muscular body wall surrounding a digestive tract that begins with the mouth in the first segment. As they burrow, they consume soil, extracting nutrients from decomposing organic matter like leaves and roots.

Earthworms are vital to soil health and to plants growing in it because they transport nutrients and minerals from below to the surface via their waste. An earthworm can eat up to a third of its body weight in a day.

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Animal encyclopedia

The fascinating life of the inchworm.

Updated on: September 14, 2023

An inchworm gracefully navigating through lush green foliage

John Brooks

September 14, 2023 / Reading time: 6 minutes

Sophie Hodgson

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Table of Contents

The inchworm, also known as the measuring worm or loop caterpillar, is a curious creature that captivates the imagination with its unique characteristics, habitat, survival mechanisms, and cultural significance. In this article, we will delve into the captivating world of the inchworm and explore its intriguing life.

Understanding the Inchworm: An Overview

Welcome to the fascinating world of inchworms! In this article, we will delve into the unique characteristics and mesmerizing life cycle of these incredible creatures. Prepare to be amazed!

The Inchworm’s Unique Characteristics

The inchworm, a member of the Geometridae family, is truly a marvel of nature. With over 35,000 species worldwide, each inchworm has its own distinctive features and behaviors. However, what truly sets the inchworm apart from other caterpillars is its incredible looping movement.

Unlike most caterpillars, which have legs on both ends of their bodies, the inchworm has legs only at its front and rear. This unusual body structure allows it to move in a looping motion, resembling the measurement of an inch, hence its name. Imagine watching these little creatures gracefully inching forward, creating a mesmerizing pattern as they go. It’s truly a sight to behold!

The Life Cycle of an Inchworm

Now, let’s take a closer look at the captivating life cycle of an inchworm. It all begins with a tiny egg, carefully laid by a female inchworm on the underside of a leaf. These eggs are often hidden from plain sight, ensuring the safety of the future generation.

After a couple of weeks, a tiny caterpillar emerges from the egg, ready to embark on its incredible journey of growth and transformation. As the caterpillar grows, it undergoes a series of molts, shedding its exoskeleton to accommodate its increasing size. Each molt marks a new stage in the inchworm’s development, bringing it closer to adulthood.

Eventually, the inchworm reaches its final larval stage, during which it focuses on feeding and building up energy reserves for the next phase of its life: pupation. This stage is crucial as it prepares the inchworm for its metamorphosis into a magnificent adult moth.

When the time comes for the inchworm to undergo this profound transformation, it attaches itself to a sturdy surface using silk threads and forms a chrysalis. Inside this protective pupal case, miraculous changes occur. The inchworm’s body undergoes a complete reorganization, breaking down and rebuilding itself into a completely different form.

After a period of time, a magnificent adult moth emerges from the chrysalis, ready to spread its wings and continue the life cycle. The adult moth’s primary focus is to find a mate and reproduce, ensuring the survival of the species for future generations to come.

As you can see, the life of an inchworm is filled with wonder and awe-inspiring transformations. From its unique looping movement to its mesmerizing life cycle, inchworms are truly remarkable creatures. So, the next time you spot an inchworm inching its way along a branch or leaf, take a moment to appreciate the incredible journey it has undertaken to reach that point.

The Inchworm’s Habitat and Distribution

Preferred environments of inchworms.

Inchworms, also known as loopers or measuring worms, are fascinating creatures that have adapted to thrive in a wide range of habitats. These remarkable insects are particularly fond of forested areas, where they can blend in with the foliage and find an abundance of food sources. The dense canopy of trees provides them with shelter and protection from predators, while the leaves offer a diverse menu of nourishment.

However, inchworms are not limited to forests alone; they have proven their ability to inhabit various other environments as well. Grasslands, with their vast expanses of open space, provide inchworms with ample opportunities for movement and exploration. In these grassy habitats, they can be seen gracefully inching their way across blades of grass, using their unique looping locomotion.

Interestingly, inchworms have also adapted to urban environments, showcasing their remarkable resilience. In parks, gardens, and even city streets, these tiny creatures can be found navigating their way through concrete jungles. Their ability to adapt to human-altered landscapes is a testament to their resourcefulness and ability to find sustenance even in the most unexpected places.

Global Distribution and Varieties

The inchworm’s presence is not confined to a specific region but rather spans across the globe. Different species of inchworms can be found in North America, Europe, Asia, and various other parts of the world. Each species possesses distinct physical attributes and ecological adaptations, adding to the rich tapestry of biodiversity.

In North America, the Eastern Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum) is a well-known species of inchworm. These caterpillars are often seen creating silk tents in the branches of trees, where they congregate and feed together. Their synchronized behavior and striking appearance make them a fascinating sight for nature enthusiasts.

In Europe, the Lackey Moth Caterpillar (Malacosoma neustria) is a common species of inchworm. These caterpillars are known for their distinctive pattern of alternating light and dark stripes, which serve as a warning to potential predators. They can be found feeding on a variety of deciduous trees, including oak, birch, and willow.

Asia is home to the Oak Processionary Caterpillar (Thaumetopoea processionea), a species of inchworm that is known for its unique behavior. These caterpillars move in long, nose-to-tail processions, creating a mesmerizing sight as they march across tree branches. However, they also pose a threat to human health due to their urticating hairs, which can cause severe allergic reactions.

These examples are just a glimpse into the diverse world of inchworms and their global distribution. From the lush forests of North America to the bustling cities of Asia, inchworms have found their niche in various ecosystems, adapting and thriving in their own unique ways.

The Inchworm’s Role in the Ecosystem

Inchworms as prey: impact on the food chain.

The inchworm plays an important role in the food chain, serving as a source of nourishment for many animals. Birds, reptiles, and small mammals often consider the inchworm a delectable treat. This predation helps to control the population of inchworms while providing sustenance for other members of the ecosystem. It’s a delicate balance where the inchworm’s life serves a greater purpose.

Inchworms and Plant Life: A Symbiotic Relationship?

While inchworms may be seen as pests by some gardeners due to their voracious appetite for leaves, they actually contribute to the ecosystem in unique ways. As they feast on foliage, inchworms help to prune plants, stimulating new growth. Additionally, their droppings act as natural fertilizer, enriching the soil with essential nutrients. Thus, there may be a hidden symbiotic relationship between inchworms and plants that we are only beginning to understand.

The Inchworm’s Survival Mechanisms

Camouflage and mimicry: the inchworm’s defense tactics.

The inchworm has evolved remarkable defense mechanisms to protect itself from predators. One of its most astonishing abilities is camouflage. By blending seamlessly with the surrounding vegetation, inchworms can elude detection, making them incredibly difficult to spot. Some inchworm species even mimic aspects of their environment, such as twigs or sticks, further enhancing their camouflage. This incredible adaptation allows them to survive in a dangerous world.

The Inchworm’s Predators and Threats

Despite their remarkable defenses, inchworms still face numerous threats in their environment. Insectivorous birds, spiders, and parasitic wasps are just a few examples of predators that seek out inchworms as a source of nourishment. Additionally, habitat destruction and pesticide use pose significant risks to their survival. It is crucial that we strive to protect and conserve the inchworm’s habitat to ensure the continuation of this fascinating species.

The Cultural Significance of the Inchworm

The inchworm in literature and folklore.

The inchworm holds a special place in human culture and has been mentioned in various forms of literature and folklore throughout history. From ancient fables and children’s stories to symbolic representations in poetry and art, the inchworm has woven its way into our collective consciousness. Its distinctive movement and mesmerizing life cycle have inspired countless tales, highlighting the enduring fascination humans have with this enigmatic creature.

The Inchworm as a Symbol: Various Interpretations

Symbolism surrounding the inchworm varies across cultures and contexts. Some interpret the inchworm as a metaphor for resilience, representing the ability to overcome obstacles and keep moving forward. Others view it as a symbol of transformation and growth, mirroring the inchworm’s journey from a humble caterpillar to a beautiful moth. The inchworm’s symbolic significance reminds us of the profound connections between nature and human experience.

In conclusion, the inchworm’s captivating life encompasses diverse aspects ranging from its unique characteristics and habitat to its role in the ecosystem and cultural significance. As we delve deeper into the fascinating world of the inchworm, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate tapestry of life that exists all around us. Let us continue to marvel at the extraordinary wonders of nature, of which the inchworm is undoubtedly one of the most captivating.

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Why Do Composting Worms “Bundle Together”?

Research on earthworms is a relatively new study compared to many other organisms. However more discoveries are being made about them everyday, discoveries of new important traits of earthworms and how they interact in our environment.

One such new discovery involves our dear composting worm the red wiggler (Eisenia Foetidas). Many of us who do worm farming or vermicomposting will know about this species of worm.

You know that bees communicate with each other by doing dance patterns, dolphins communicate through sound under water, but how do worms communicate with each other? Scientists in the University of Liege in Belgium have discovered the answer to this question.

In one of our newsletters we had a reader who inquired why earthworms form clumps of balls together in compost or when out in the open. One of the reasons is because this is their form of communication.

The study has been published in the journal of Ethology mentioning that worms uses ‘touch’ to communicate and influence each others behavior. After communication signals have been swapped, the worms will then collectively move in the same direction, meaning that worms do not act singularly, but form ‘herds’.

This is really interesting as it answers many questions when we see worms form clumps of balls, especially when the environment is not particularly right for them due to low temperatures, shortage of food or when they are out in the open.

The only previous explanations were for ‘protection from predators’ or ‘prevention of freezing’, but with the extra explanation of ‘communication’, we can now also understand that the worms are deciding where to go next to move away from the immediate danger, and then move together.

This can also explain the growth of worm populations in healthy soil.

Since worms travel together, once they find good soil, their whole family will soon be there!

Want to know how they did these experiments?

You can read more here .

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Down to Earth

What’s with these invasive “crazy” worms and why can’t we get rid of them?

They reproduce without mating and are rapidly chewing through soil across the US. But there’s still a lot we don’t know about “jumping” worms.

by Katherine Harmon Courage

An outstretched hand with worms in the center.

Tiny, wriggling horrors are hatching right now, under our feet, across the country.

No, not the billions of Brood X cicadas emerging throughout the eastern US. I’m talking instead about baby invasive “ crazy worms ” that thrash through garden, farm, city, and forest soil, growing to 3 to 6 inches in length, sucking up nutrients, and transforming rich leaf litter into coarse droppings. All while laying nearly 20 hardy worm cocoons a month , without needing a mate.

Variously known as jumping worms, snake worms, Alabama jumpers, and Jersey wrigglers, common Amynthas species are a super-powered version of the more familiar, squishy languidness of the garden-variety European earthworms (whose genus name, Lumbricus , itself sounds plodding). And their rapid spread into new areas has led to a surge of concern about these worms.

This vigorous lifestyle can quickly lead to full-blown infestations — and decimated topsoil. Perhaps it’s no wonder jumping worms recently have been invading the internet , too.

“You can see hundreds of them massing together, eliciting squeals of either horror or delight,” says Bernie Williams , a plant pest and disease expert at the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, who has been studying worms for some 20 years (“too many years”). Jumping worms, of the genus Amynthas , have now been spotted in more than half of US states and at least one Canadian province.

Amynthas worms raise not only the frequent disgust of gardeners, but also serious concern for land management experts. By churning through such high volumes of surface mulch and litter (and not allowing it to decompose more naturally into the soil), these worms seem to tie up plant-friendly nutrients into their dry castings, which are then easily washed away. They can physically undermine plants by loosening the top layer of soil — especially when hundreds of them are at work — and make it less able to retain moisture. They also seem to eradicate European earthworms, which help mix and aerate healthy soil, wherever they arrive.

So, it’s panic time, right?

It turns out we know very little about these annelid invaders beyond their self-fertilizing fecundity, physical vigor, and prolific digestive habits. It is true that they are changing the landscapes they enter, but some researchers say that while we should work to control jumping worms, we also need to learn more about them — and, yes, learn how we can live with them, too.

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This is a second-wave invasion

America didn’t always have worms. At least not of the familiar earthworm variety.

European earthworms were once an invader to North America, too. When they arrived from across the Atlantic in the 1600s, much of the continent had been free of a meaningful earthworm population since at least the last ice age. When they got here, they brought their share of changes to the landscape, including altering native forests. But in the intervening centuries, we have learned to live with — and sometimes even love — them.

Amynthas worms, by contrast, are slightly newer, second-wave invaders. Although the first documented observations of them in the US reach back to the 1930s, their arrival in many regions has been within just the past decades or even years. When such a vigorous organism moves in, the early results can be shocking, especially with jumping worms. “There are so many of them, and they’re so active, people get really disturbed by them,” Williams says.

The Amynthas species we have in the US (most commonly Amynthas agrestis and Amynthas tokioensis ) are primarily from Japan and the Korean peninsula. In their home habitats, they evolved along with the local ecosystems — and the ecosystems along with them. But here, “just like any other invasive species that are displaced into a brand new habitat that might not have controls, they’re able to take advantage of that and go gangbusters,” says Brad Herrick , an ecologist at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.

But buried in this issue is a big and more concerning mystery: Researchers don’t know why, over the past decade and a half, these worms seem to be spreading so much farther and faster.

The worm invasion may be getting worse

It’s believed Amynthas worms are primarily spread through moved mulch and compost; soil transported with plants or on vehicles; streams by natural distribution and use as fishing bait; and, of course, by snaking their way across the landscape. (Part of Amynthas ’s success lies in the hardiness of their tiny cocoons, which are just 1 to 3 millimeters in diameter, can survive temperatures ranging from about -15 to 103 degrees Fahrenheit, and some of which are thought to hide cryptically in the soil for more than a year before hatching.)

Why are we now seeing so many more of them, and in so many more places? Part of it might be due to increased awareness, but Herrick and others also think there is more to it than that. Climate change could be one possibility, he says, opening up more northern latitudes to their liking. Another is that they have reached a population tipping point that makes mass spreading more likely, Herrick notes.

Through their feeding behavior, Amynthas earthworms create a coarsely granular soil structure comprising small nutrient-rich excrement or “castings.”

Although much remains unknown about these worms, we do have some good reason to worry about them — and to do our best to limit their spread.

Take the way they move through the soil, for example. European earthworms, on the one hand, are wide-ranging feeders. They make their way through surface, mid-, and lower levels of the soil. In this ambling habit, they circulate nutrients (ingesting some debris here, leaving their castings there) and break up the soil among strata, providing air and water to the layers below.

Amynthas worms, on the other hand, stick to the surface. So not only do they not perform the helpful mixing, but they also leave all of their castings — which Herrick likens to “coffee grounds or taco meat” — on the surface, where they are easily washed away by rain and irrigation. “They can transform the soil in one growing season,” Herrick says. This can cause problems for cultivated landscapes, such as gardens and urban areas, as they lose nutrients in runoff and have less stable upper soil layers for plants to root into. (Their potential impact on US agriculture has not yet been well studied, although heavily tilled and treated cropland is a less welcoming habitat for them.)

They also seem to be altering forests. In North American forests, which evolved over more than 10,000 years without earthworm populations, earthworms of any kind can undermine the soil’s density and change its composition . Amynthas worms also pose a threat to the many organisms — plants, bugs, microorganisms — that make up the established understory ecosystem. “Once this layer disappears, this whole biodiversity disappears, and impacts forest ecology as a whole,” explains Katalin Szlavecz , a soil ecologist at Johns Hopkins University. This disturbance can also make it easier for other invasive species to move in, Herrick adds.

And then there’s jumping worms’ uncanny ability to push out established European earthworm populations. They clearly seem poised to outcompete their more methodical relatives. After an invasion, “It’s almost like War of the Worlds : what happened?” says Williams.

The reason for the decimation remains unclear. “Is it a virus? Is it an associated nematode? Do they have a chemical release? There’s a huge mystery here,” she says.

“The can of worms is open, and you can’t put them back in”

In light of these unhelpful doings, some states have tried to slow the spread by listing Amynthas worms as prohibited species. And to try to beat back existing infestations, researchers have investigated using everything from controlled b u rns to sulfur treatments , with moderate localized success. But, says Szlavecz, “I don’t think, on a large scale, any of these are efficient.”

Some commercial processes might help stop them. For example, Herrick has found that heating the cocoons to 104 degrees for three days kills them. And others are investigating different types of soil applications, including worm-killing fertilizers and fungi.

Gardeners, meanwhile, have been fighting their own battles against Amynthas . Some are still trying to prevent them from entering by erecting a shallow barrier of metal flashing to serve as a subterranean wall. Williams recommends also not picking up roadside compost, mulch, or plants, and asking nursery staff about the potential for jumping worms in products. There may be some that get in anyway: “you can’t stop birds from flying, you can’t stop worms that like to wriggle across the soil,” Williams says.

Still, others dealing with current infestations can try solarizing soil with plastic in the spring or forcing worms to the surface with a “ mustard pour ” — mixing powdered mustard with water and pouring it over the soil surface — and then handpicking them out .

While most land management experts encourage all of the reasonable steps we can take to control these voracious worms, there is little hope of eradicating them from North America. “The can of worms is open, and you can’t put them back in,” Williams says.

In other words, we now have our own adapting to do.

Herrick and his colleagues are currently enlisting local gardeners and others to help learn what native and ornamental plants might survive well or even thrive in jumping worm-modified soil.

“There are more question marks here,” Szlavecz adds. Which is why, she argues, continued research — as well as individuals’ observation — of these worms needs to continue. She argues for a rebranding as well. Not only do they not jump , “they’re not ‘crazy’ — it’s a big enough problem that they are invasive. Calling them ‘crazy’ just adds to the panic.”

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NOT EXACTLY ROCKET SCIENCE

A Thousand Worms Merge Into a Living Tower

What’s creepier than a worm rearing up on its tail to snag a passing insect? A thousand worms uniting into a single living, writhing, waving tower to snag a passing insect.

Pristionchus pacificus is a nematode or roundworm—one of 25,000 species that are among the most numerous animals on the planet. This particular nematode infests the bodies of scarab beetle larvae. It’s not a parasite as such, and its habits are positively tame compared to the creatures that often feature on this blog. It simply waits for its host to die of natural causes, and then eats the microbes that grow on its carcass.

But first, it has to get into a beetle. At some point during its early days, P.pacificus pauses its growth and becomes a dauer —an especially tough larva that’s adapted to survive through harsh conditions. The dauers stand on their tails and wave their body about in the hopes of latching onto passing beetles.

But Sider Penkov and Akira Ogawa from the Max Planck Institutes found that groups of P.pacificus can merge to form a single waving “dauer tower”, composed of up to a thousand individuals.

Each individual worm is just a quarter of a millimetre long but the towers can grow up to a centimetre. Some are so big that you can see them with the naked eye and photograph them with a macro lens, even though their members are all microscopic.

Such teamwork! Such togetherness! Such low odds of ever appearing on a motivational poster!

Other nematodes like C.elegans —that darling of biologists—also form dauer towers, but these constructions are small and fall apart easily. By contrast, P.pacificus ’s towers are incredibly strong. Penkov and Ogawa tried prodding them with a metal wire, and they didn’t fall apart. They stuck the towers in water and the larvae started to swim, but they still kept together as a cohesive mass. The only thing that worked was a dash of detergent. When they added that to the water, and the towers disintegrate into a mass of individual larvae.

The team reasoned that the worms must be sticking together with a fatty or waxy chemical that repels water but can be dissolved by detergent. Indeed, they saw that the worms exuded small droplets over their skins, soon after they transformed into dauers. The droplets contained a huge wax molecule (C60H100O2N), one of the longest found in any animal or plant. The team called it nematoil.

Nematoil is the glue that gives the dauer tower its power. When the team synthesised the chemical and applied it to C.elegans , they found that even this nematode could unite into a sturdy spire.

Penkov and Ogawa suspect that the tower’s height gives its constituent larvae better odds of hitching onto a beetle. Once one of them snags some cuticle, the entire tower can get pulled along for the ride, held together by their nematoil secretions.

But their discovery raises many more questions. What brings the worms together in the first place? How do they coordinate their movements to produce a cohesive wave? And are there cheats?

P.pacificus reminds me of another microscopic creature called Dictyostelium discoideum , or Dicty for short. It’s not an animal but a slime mould. It mostly spends its time as single-celled amoebae, but these can merge into a many-celled slug. The slug slowly stretches skywards, forming a spore capsule atop a long stalk. Any amoebae that form the spores will survive, but those that create the stalk go nowhere and eventually die. This leads to conflict. Some amoebae are cheats, which make more than their fair share of spores and are rarely contribute to the stalk.

Does the same apply to P.pacificus ? Do the nematodes at the base of the stalk perhaps get left behind? Do some of them secrete less nematoil (which, after all, takes a lot of energy to make), relying instead on their neighbours’ glue?

Reference: Penkov, Ogawa, Schmidt, Tate, Zagoriy, Boland, Gruner, Vorkel, Verbavatz, Sommer, Knolker, Kurzchalia. 2014. A wax ester promotes collective host finding in the nematode Pristionchus pacificus. Nature Chemical Biology http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nchembio.1460

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How do earthworms move?

Part of the show qna: earthworms and wormholes.

How do earthworms move? Surely they are not strong enough to push dirt / soil out of their way, so how do they move around in compacted soil?

Chris Smith put Paul's earthy question to animal behaviourist Eleanor Drinkwater...

Eleanor - Well this is a brilliant question and if you think about it, like you know, how does this little blob of pink kind of manage to wiggle its way through such hard earth. And the answer is: it's all about fluids. So if you've ever had a water balloon and you grab one end the other end kind of shoots out, and that's kind of what's going on in worms. So if you look really carefully you'll see that they're segmented all the way down their bodies. It has two sets of muscles, one that'll make the segment kind of long and then and the other one will make it short and fat. And so it's a kind of combination of these muscles working interchangeably, changing the shape of the segment without changing the volume of the segment.

Chris - So you've got a muscle that goes, or muscles, that go along the length of the worm and when they contract them make it short and fat vs. muscles that are in rings around the world making it get thinner and longer when they squirt or squeeze.

Eleanor - In principle, yes.

Chris - And it's using the antagonistic effects of those two to change its shape. How does that push a tiny worm through soil?

Eleanor - So it's a bit like an accordion, the way that they all kind of contract together and space out, and it's just incredible to think about the fact that each segment in this worm can move and contract independently. I just think it's mind blowing personally, it's amazing.

Chris - Don’t they eat their way through the soil as well? Because you know when I lived in Sydney these people introduced me to their wormery and said we put all our household rubbish on this and they turn out worm juice and this is plant magic, it's like gold dust for plants it makes everything grow.

Eleanor - Yeah they do eat vegetation in the soil but they can also whittle through it as well.

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Invasive in the Spotlight: Jumping Worms

Conventional wisdom tells us that earthworms are good for the soil. They improve soil drainage and aeration, increase nutrient availability, and enhance soil structure. While this may be true of some earthworm species, a family of more recently introduced earthworms are changing how we look at worms in the environment. Jumping worms ( Amynthas spp.), also known as snake worms or crazy worms, are an invasive earthworm introduced to North America from eastern Asia. In short: they have the potential to dramatically change soil structure, impact forest ecology, and reduce biodiversity.

What Damage Do They Cause?

Jumping worms alter soil structure more than any other worm. They are voracious, devouring the organic layer of the soil and leaving behind abundant coffee ground-like castings. Unlike other earthworms, jumping worms live and feed close to the soil surface. In woodland areas, they can quickly consume all of the leaf litter on the forest floor and make the upper layers of the soil feel grainy with their castings. While this change to the soil structure may not have a major affect cultivated bedding plants, it can be extremely detrimental to native plants and animals.

Most earthworms in the northeast are considered exotic. They were introduced to North America in the 18th and 19th centuries from Europe and Asia though the trade of horticultural materials. Native plants in the northeast evolved without the presence of earthworms, and Northeastern forests have a characteristically thick layer of leaf litter and organic matter. Many native plants require this organic layer for their seeds to germinate. When jumping worms consume the upper organic layer of the soil, native plants slowly disappear and invasive species take their place. As the forest floor structure changes, other species suffer too, such as ground nesting birds, amphibians, and invertebrates.

How can I tell if it’s a jumping worm?

While the extent of the jumping worm population is still unknown in New Hampshire, these worms may be found residing in gardens in some parts of the state. Jumping worms are brown to grayish in color with a smooth, white band (clitellum) that completely encircles the body near the head. Unfortunately, jumping worms are very difficult to identify by sight alone. However, their behavior is distinctive. Jumping worms tend to have firm bodies and writhe powerfully if you try to pick them up. They will occasionally lose their tails as a defense mechanism to escape predators. Jumping worms are also remarkably fast, which is how they get their name. Many gardeners (myself included) have been startled by how quickly these worms move, in an almost snake-like fashion, across the soil surface.

You’ll most likely find jumping worms in the garden, compost pile, or adjacent woodlands. They’re surface dwellers that tend to stay in the upper few inches of the soil. A marked reduction in the amount of leaf litter on the forest floor or rapidly disappearing garden mulches are indications that jumping worms are present. In fact, the most significant negative impact these invaders seem to have on gardens is their rapid consumption of mulch. Even woodchips don’t last long when jumping worms are around. If you suspect there may be jumping worms in your garden, digging into the soil should provide the answer. You’ll notice their grainy castings and probably find a worm or two rapidly trying to slither away.

Start looking for adult jumping worms in June. While the adults do not survive the winter, their young persist in cocoons and reach adulthood in mid-summer.

What can you do?

Jumping worms naturally expand their range very slowly. Do not buy or sell mulch, topsoil, compost, or plants that are infested with jumping worms. Before bringing these products home and introducing them to your landscape or garden, carefully inspect the materials for signs of jumping worms and their castings. Be especially careful when sharing plant material at community plant sales and swaps. Jumping worms will readily crawl in to reproduce within nursery pots. If you know you have jumping worms in your garden, it’s better to avoid sharing plants with other gardeners.

Before you purchase any new plants, take a close look at the potting soil. If jumping worms are present, you will see signs of their telltale, coffee-ground like castings on the soil surface. To make sure you aren’t introducing jumping worms with new plantings, try to remove most of the soil from the root ball of a new plant. Knock off the soil into a garbage bin and rinse the roots with water to remove any remaining soil.

Jumping worms are occasionally sold as fishing bait or for use in vermicomposting. Do not purchase them for these purposes or any other purpose and do not release them into the garden.

If you think you have jumping worms in your garden, don’t panic. While you may not be able to eliminate them from your garden, you can still play a big part in preventing their spread. Suspected jumping worm sightings in New Hampshire can be reported to NHBugs .

Want to learn more?

If you’re interested in learning more about invasive earthworms check out these resources:

Entomology Research Laboratory at University of Vermont

Jumping Worm Field Guide from the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources

New York Invasive Species Research Institute

Great Lakes Worm Watch

Got questions? The Ask UNH Extension Infoline offers practical help finding answers for your home, yard, and garden questions. Call toll free at 1-877-398-4769, Monday to Friday, 9 a.m. to 2 p.m., or e-mail us at [email protected] .

woman talking on the phone, for context with the UNH Infoline

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The clitellum or collar of the jumping worm goes all the way around the body and is smooth. The worms are very active and have a sheen to them. When disturbed, the jumping worm (amyhthas agretis) will actively trash and flip, slither snake-like, and may shed their tails.

Jumping Worm (Amynthas spp.)

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Jumping Worm

Have you seen an abundance of worms in your garden? If so, look to see if they resemble the worm in the photo above. The clitellum or collar goes all the way around the body and is smooth. The worms are very active and have a sheen to them. Look for worm castings around your garden.

The jumping worms alter the structure and chemistry of the soil dramatically, leaving a distinctive grainy soil full of worm castings, and they can damage lawns, landscapes and even the forest understory habitat. People unknowingly spread these worm by using them for bait or transport their egg cocoons on shoes and wheels, in mulch, or via transplanted plants.

Jumping worms reproduce easily. They are asexual (parthenogenetic) and mature in just 60 days, so each year they can have two hatches. The best time to see them is late June and early July. From September until the first hard frost, their population will double and may reach damaging levels.

Research is being done on controlling these worms but nothing has come back with favorable results. What you can try to do is contain their spread by recognizing the worms when you are working in your garden. Don’t transplant mulch, soil or plants to uncontaminated areas. Plant bare root stock or seeds when possible. Do not buy Amynthas worms for composting, vermicomposting, gardening or bait. If you already have these worms, remove and dispose of them by solarizing them or soaking them in isopropyl (rubbing) alcohol. Do not put them in the compost pile or garden.

Text above from Cornell Cooperative Extension of Columbia and Greene Counties, which also compiled the following resources:

Jumping Worms Fact Sheet

National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Species Spotlight

Invasive Earthworms in the Northeast from The University of Vermont, Plant & Soil Science Department

Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Forest Health Fact Sheet

Jumping Worm: The creepy damaging invasive you don't know from Cool Green Science blog

Jumping Worm ID Guide from Minnesota Extension

Last updated January 22, 2024

Invasive Pests

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Check Potted Plants!

Potted plants can harbor dangerous fugitives. Test with a mustard solution. Mix a gallon of water with one-third cup of ground yellow mustard seed, and pour this slowly into the soil. It won’t hurt the plant, but worms (even “good” ones) will come to the surface and you can check for miscreants.

Another test is to turn the pot upside-down and gently remove the root ball. If crazy worms are present, the roots, as well as some potting soil, may be missing. If only young crazy worms are present, or very few, damage might not be evident.

In The Garden

In this 2 minute video , University of Illinois Extension Educator Richard Hentschel talks about a newer invasive species, the jumping worm.

The Center for Agriculture, Food and the Environment at University of Massachusetts Amherst has compiled an extensive list of " Invasive Jumping Worm Frequently Asked Questions " including questions on identification; biology; ecological impacts; bioaccumulation of heavy metals; climate change & jumping worms; mulch, soil, compost & plant sales; biological control; chemical & physical management; and more.

Report Invasives

iMapInvasives is an online tool for invasive species reporting and data management.

Claymation Video

Watch this short Jumping Worm claymation video to learn more! Created by CCE of Columbia & Greene Counties

Cornell Cooperative Extension Ulster County

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Invasives_Content Page_Jumping worms

Jumping worms, amynthas spp..

Jumping worms , are non-native, invasive earthworms first confirmed in Wisconsin in 2013. Native to eastern Asia, they present challenges to homeowners, gardeners and forest managers. Jumping worms get their name from their behavior. When disturbed, they thrash, spring into the air and can even shed their tails to escape.

This website will help you learn about jumping worms and their effects on yards, gardens and forests, what you can do to prevent their spread and what to do if they’re already on your property.

Find out more:

Endemic to parts of Asia, jumping worms (Amynthas spp.) first arrived in North America sometime in the late 19th century, probably in imported plants and other horticultural and agricultural materials. Since then, jumping worms have become widespread across much of the northeast, southeast and midwestern U.S. In 2013, jumping worms were confirmed for the first time in the upper Midwest, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum.

Jumping worms aren’t the first invasive earthworms in Wisconsin.

Surprisingly, all earthworms in Wisconsin are non-native. There have been no native earthworms in Wisconsin since the last glacier moved through the state thousands of years ago, scouring the landscape down to the bedrock. The familiar earthworms we see in our gardens and on our fishing hooks originated in Europe, brought here by settlers. Although all earthworms can harm landscapes and forests, jumping worms may pose a bigger threat than European worms.

Why jumping worms are a problem

Jumping worms can quickly transform soil into dry, granular pellets with a texture like discarded coffee grounds. This altered soil structure is often unaccommodating to ornamental and garden plants and inhospitable to many native plant species. In addition, they can deplete the soil of nutrients, impact soil organisms, and in many cases, invasive plants thrive where jumping worms live.

Where to look for jumping worms

Jumping worms do not burrow far into the soil – they live on the soil surface in debris and leaf litter, or within an inch or two of the topsoil.
Look for them in your yard, garden, forest, mulch pile, compost, potted plants and other suitable places.

What jumping worms look like

Smooth, glossy dark gray/brown color
Clitellum*, the lighter-colored band, is cloudy-white to gray; completely encircles the body. Its surface is flush with the rest of the body
Snake-like movement
They tend to occur in large numbers; where there’s one, there are always more

*The clitellum is a band of glandular tissue composed that partially or fully encircles the worm’s body.

Comparison: jumping worm vs. European nightcrawler

When to look for jumping worms.

Jumping worms are most noticeable in late summer/early autumn when most of them are fully mature.

It takes 90-120 days between hatching and reproduction. Jumping worms, unlike European earthworms, can complete two generations per year in Wisconsin.

The real problem: cocoons

Unlike most other kinds of earthworms, jumping worms are parthenogenic - they self-fertilize and do not need mates to reproduce. Each new generation begins with the production of hardened egg capsules, known as cocoons, that overwinter in the soil to hatch the following spring. Jumping worm cocoons are resistant to cold and drought and are as tiny as mustard seeds. Since they greatly resemble small bits of dirt, they are hard to see and so are often unknowingly moved in soil, mulch, potted plants, etc.

What jumping worms do to the soil

Jumping worms feed on organic matter in soil, leaf litter and mulch and excrete grainy-looking, hard little pellets, called castings, that alter the texture and composition of soil.

Besides consuming nutrients that plants, animals, fungi and bacteria need to survive, the resulting soil, which resembles large coffee grounds, provides poor structure and support for many understory plants. Invasive plant species may move in when native plants die.

Jumping worm effects on forests

All earthworms, not just jumping worms, can harm forests by changing the soil structure and forest floor vegetation. Their feeding can result in a loss of soil moisture, compacted soil, exposed roots, erosion and an increase of pathogens and non-native plants. The result is less diversity of native plants and animals in delicate forest ecosystems.

There is no “magic bullet” to control jumping worms, at least not yet. Management mainly consists of taking precautions to not move them onto or off your property. However, if they are already there, there are strategies you can use to reduce and slow the spread.

Prevention is by far the best approach to jumping worms. Even if jumping worms are on part of your property, take care not to introduce them to uninfested areas.

The following simple steps will reduce the spread of jumping worms:

Educate yourself and others to recognize jumping worms
Watch for jumping worms and signs of their presence
Arrive clean, leave clean. Clean soil and debris from vehicles, equipment and personal gear before moving to and from a work or recreational area – they might contain jumping worms or their cocoons
Use, sell, plant, purchase or trade only landscape and gardening materials and plants that appear to be free of jumping worms
Sell, purchase or trade only compost and mulch that was heated to appropriate temperatures and duration following protocols that reduce pathogens.

What to do if jumping worms are already on your property

Don’t panic. By taking precautions, you can continue enjoying your yard, trees and garden. Just because you have jumping worms in one part of your property doesn’t mean that they are everywhere. Take precautions to avoid spreading them.
Remove and destroy jumping worms when you see them. Simply seal them in a bag and throw it in the trash – they will not survive long. Reducing the adult population will eventually reduce the number of egg-carrying cocoons in the landscape.
Heat treatment. Jumping worms and their cocoons are sensitive to high temperatures. Research has shown that neither worms nor cocoons can survive 104°F or above for more than three days. Under the appropriate conditions and management, compost piles can easily reach this temperature. In addition, using clear plastic to cover the topsoil of gardens and lawns exposed to full sun, can raise the temperature enough to kill cocoons, even in the spring.
Chemical treatment. Research has shown that the biological insecticide, BotaniGard, can significantly reduce the abundance of jumping worms.
Experiment. If necessary, try a variety of plants or consider alternative landscaping in heavily infested parts of your property. Try a variety of mulch products such as straw or native grass clippings (e.g. big bluestem, Indian grass, etc).
Keep your chin up. Research is moving forward to find ways to control and manage jumping worms. As you experiment with controls and adapt your gardening practices, share your successes (and failures) with fellow gardeners, land managers and researchers so that we can all learn from each other!

Identification and Information

Jumping worms - Printable document from the Wisconsin DNR.

Jumping worms: the creepy, damaging invasive you don’t know [exit DNR] by Matthew L. Miller, science communicator for The Nature Conservancy. October 2016. This short article serves as a great introduction to earthworms in general and the jumping worm in particular.

Asian jumping worms: what we know, with UW-Madison’s Brad Herrick [exit DNR] from AWaytoGarden.com. March 2018. Questions and answers with UW-Madison Arboretum’s ecologist Brad Herrick.

Unwelcome guests: Beware the emergence of dreaded jumping worms [exit DNR] by Kathy Stahl, co-chair of the Lower Chippewa Invasives Partnership. A well-written article first published in the Dunn county News on July 7, 2018.

Research Update: Jumping Worms and Sleeping Cocoons [exit DNR] by Marie Johnston, postdoc, UW–Madison Department of Soil Science and Arboretum. May 2017. A short overview of recent research on jumping worms at the UW-Madison Arboretum.

Fact sheets

Jumping Worm quick facts [exit DNR] . by UW-Madison Arboretum. 2022.

Jumping Worms homeowner guide [exit DNR] by Jumping Worm Outreach, Research and Management Working Group (JWORM).

Jumping worms in Wisconsin [exit DNR] . December 2016 This 40-second video from the Milwaukee Journal Sentinel form December 2016 highlights jumping worms’ distinctive thrashing movement.

Invasion of the Earthworms [exit DNR] . September 2011 A two-minute National Science Foundation video that discusses the problems that non-native earthworms cause in forests.

Ralph Nuzum Lecture Series: Impacts of Invasive Earthworms on Forests [exit DNR] . A 53-minute talk by Evan Larson, professor of geography at UW-Platteville, discusses the effect of non-native earthworms on ecosystems of northeastern forests.

Jumping worm FAQ [PDF]

The Wisconsin jumping worm website is a collaborative effort between the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources (DNR), the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, University of Wisconsin-Extension and the Olbrich Botanical Gardens.

Invasive Species

Invasives_Topic Contact_Invasive Species Coordinator

For more information, contact.

DNR invasive species staff

Live Customer Service 800-373-0555

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Why are my composting worms trying to escape.

Worms in a vermicomposting bin sometimes try to escape. If it’s just one or two adventurous worms, you don’t have much to worry about. However, if you see worms clumping near the top of the bin, at the air ducts, or climbing out, something may be amiss. Let’s find out why composting worms try to escape and what you can do about it.

Note: Worms are sensitive to the weather. If a low-pressure system or thunderstorm is moving in, the worms might start clumping and climbing. Watch for a while and see if this is the pattern. If so, do not worry.

Need…Gasp…Oxygen

Worms breathe through their skins. If they don’t have enough air, they will try to leave the bin. Lack of oxygen could be caused by:

Overfeeding: To check for overfeeding, dig around. Is there a lot of undigested food in the bin? You can take some out. Wait until they have worked through most of the food in the bin before adding more. If you have excess scraps, you can freeze them until later.
Poor bin design: Your worm bin should have a lid. Keeping the lid on discourages escapees. A poorly designed bin might not have good drainage. Maybe it doesn’t have enough air holes, or the holes are blocked. We’ve even seen shallow homemade worm bins set right out in the open with no lid, and of course, the worms made a break for it! Build a solid bin yourself, or try one of our tray-based composters .
Insufficient ventilation: Any compost bin can get its air holes clogged with debris or objects surrounding it. Check for this and open up the air passages.
Material dumped on top them: When introducing worms to the bin, place them on top of the bedding. Let them dig their own way in. They build little tunnels that provide oxygen. Dumping lots of bedding directly on worms can smother them.

Excess Moisture

If the bin is too wet, your worms will start to drown. They may try to crawl away from the danger. This is also bad for composting and can stink up the bin. Excess mold and even mildew can grow – yuck!

The worm bedding should have the consistency of a wrung-out sponge. Squeeze some bedding in your hand to check. If water comes out, your bin is too wet.

The cure for a wet bin is to add dry bedding . Shredded newspaper is perfect; so is peat moss, coconut coir and shredded cardboard. Add and stir gently.

To help prevent moisture problems, keep the lid on, especially when it rains. Don’t add too much wet, sloppy foods like melon or left-over fruit smoothies.

If the bin is wet beyond repair, you might need to harvest your worm castings (fertilizer), isolate your worms from most of their bedding, and start over with fresh bedding.

Recent Change

If you like detective work, look at any recent change you’ve made that might be causing the problem. New environment? New bedding? New foods? If possible, reverse the recent change and see if the worms go back to normal.

If the worms are in escape mode, avoid nitrogen-rich foods , which include grass clippings. Also, avoid acidic foods (tomatoes, onions, pineapples, excessive coffee grounds, tea bags, citrus), and don’t add too much white paper, which contains bleach.

Sometimes people forget to feed their worms. Starvation will drive the worms to greener pastures. When you go on vacation, save up scraps in the fridge or freezer. Ask a friend to feed the worms twice a week or so. Maybe you’re eating out a lot and aren’t generating any kitchen scraps. Enlist a neighbor to save their kitchen scraps for you, and save leftover salads (wash off the dressing). Keep the worms fed until you’re back in the kitchen.

The pH of the Worm Bin

Most compost owners don’t need to go to the trouble of actually measuring the pH of their worm bin. If you have a pH probe handy, measure it and aim for neutral pH of 7 . Adding some crushed eggshells helps lower the pH and adds grit that helps the worm digest the food. Acidic, oily or salty foods like potato chips and large amounts of tomatoes can throw off the pH.

New Baby Worms

When the worms reproduce , hundreds or even thousands of baby worms hatch. The adults might feel crowded and try to leave. You can just ignore the problem, and the population will balance itself. Or, scoop up the “volunteers” who are hanging around the sides and top of the bin, and start a new bin.

Maybe a friend would like to start composting and would love a bucketful of worms for their birthday. Red composting worms are also great to use as fishing bait, so you can gift them to a friend who loves going on fishing trips.

Worms Might Be Sick – Maintain a Healthy Worm Bin

Worm health is an essential factor to consider when you’re composting with worms. If your composting worms are trying to escape, it could mean they aren’t healthy. Here are some common factors that can affect worm health:

Temperature: Composting worms prefer temperatures between 55-77°F. If the temperature is too hot or too cold, it can stress out the worms, and they may try to escape. Keep your worm bin in a place where the temperature is stable and within the ideal range.
Moisture: Worms breathe through their skin, so they need a moist environment to survive. If the bedding is too dry, it can cause the worms to dry out, which can be deadly. Conversely, if the bedding is too wet, it can lead to anaerobic conditions, harming the worms. Make sure to keep the bedding moist but not soaking wet.
pH Level: Composting worms prefer a neutral pH between 6.5 and 7.5. If the pH level in the worm bin is too acidic or alkaline, it can be bad for the worms’ health. You can test the pH level using a pH test kit and adjust it using materials such as crushed eggshells, lime, or dolomite.
Overfeeding: A buildup of uneaten food can attract pests and cause odors. It can also cause the worm bin to become too acidic or alkaline, harming the worms’ health. Make sure to feed the worms small amounts of food regularly and avoid feeding them citrus fruits, onions, or meat.

By paying attention to these factors and ensuring that your composting worms have a healthy environment, you can prevent them from trying to escape and ensure a thriving worm bin .

Quick Fix: Turn On a Light

Maybe your worms charge at the lid whenever you try to feed them. If you’re trying some of the ideas above, you can keep the worms under your thumb by simply turning on a light . This video demonstrates that light starts working immediately. The 3-minute video also has some reasons why your worms might be escaping.

How to Stop Worms from Escaping the Compost Bin

You can also put some dry bedding on the top. This will discourage worms from climbing up. Just make sure not to suffocate them.

Adjust Your Worm Bin

If worms escaping is really a problem, making adjustments to your worm bin should help. Implementing all the tips we mentioned above should help you determine why worms are trying to get out and how to stop them. And if you’ve lost a large number of your worms, you can always order more from us!

At Uncle Jim’s Worm Farm , we have been cultivating worms for more than 40 years. We grow our own composting worms and even carry a line of tray-based composters, perfect indoors or out. We carry all the equipment you need for creating your worm farm and keeping your worm bins healthy and worms happy. So, don’t wait – browse our website to find everything you need for a successful vermicomposting journey!

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Are you looking to make your garden eco-friendly and save on water bills? Worm composting, or vermicomposting, is the perfect solution for you! This natural method uses worms to turn your kitchen scraps into rich compost, helping your garden retain moisture and reducing the need for frequent watering. In this article, you’ll discover how vermicomposting […]

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As we strive for more sustainable food production methods, it’s important to recognize the unsung heroes in our soil—earthworms! These tiny creatures are working hard to break down organic matter into nutrient-rich compost, whether in commercial farming or private gardens. Worms improve soil aeration and drainage, which is crucial for healthy plant roots. They also help increase […]

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Vermicomposting is a joyful journey into the fascinating world of worms and their incredible ability to transform our everyday kitchen scraps into black gold for our gardens. This eco-friendly method significantly reduces household waste and enriches our soil with nutrient-packed compost. Yet, it can sometimes feel daunting, especially when unexpected hiccups occur. But fear not! […]

The Ultimate Guide to Indoor Composting with Worms

Guess what? You don’t need a sprawling garden or a big backyard to join the worm farming revolution! That’s right, my friends – indoor composting with worms is not only doable, but it’s also super neat, odor-free, and perfect for those living in cozy apartments, snug flats, or any space where a garden is a […]

Family Members Infected With Parasitic Worms After Eating Undercooked Bear Meat at Reunion

Six people developed symptoms of roundworm infection after consuming grilled black bear meat and vegetables in July 2022, and all have since recovered

Daily Correspondent

Close-up view of little worms under a microscope

Six people became infected with parasitic roundworms after eating undercooked bear meat at a family reunion in South Dakota two years ago, according to a new report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Extended family members from Arizona, Minnesota and South Dakota gathered for a meal in July 2022. One person brought meat from a black bear he’d hunted in Saskatchewan, Canada, in May of that year. The meat had been frozen for 45 days, upon the advice of the hunting guide, who’d recommended stashing it in the freezer to kill any parasites.

At the reunion, the meat was thawed, grilled up with vegetables and served as kabobs. When the family members started eating, they realized the meat was undercooked, so they tossed it back on the grill for a little longer before chowing down.

“The meat was initially inadvertently served rare, reportedly because the meat was dark in color, and it was difficult for the family members to visually ascertain the level of doneness,” according to the CDC.

Six days later, a 29-year-old man who’d attended the family reunion came down with a fever, swelling around the eyes, severe muscle pain and other symptoms. He was hospitalized twice, and during his second hospitalization, doctors learned that he’d recently eaten black bear meat. They suspected trichinellosis , a parasitic infection caused by Trichinella , a type of roundworm. Laboratory testing confirmed their hunch.

Five other family members also came down with trichinellosis, including two people who had not eaten the black bear meat but had eaten the vegetables. That’s because meat that’s infected with Trichinella can cross-contaminate other foods, per the CDC.

When the agency tested some of the remaining frozen black bear meat, it found Trichinella larvae from a species that can survive freezing. At that point, the meat had been frozen for 110 days—nearly four months—and the larvae were still alive.

In total, the infection sent three family members to the hospital, where they were treated with albendazole , an anti-parasite medication. The other family members who did not go to the hospital did not receive treatment, because their symptoms resolved on their own. All six sickened patients, ranging in age from 12 to 62, eventually recovered.

The outbreak doesn’t present a broader threat to public health. But the CDC is reminding home cooks to heat wild game meat to an internal temperature of at least 165 degrees Fahrenheit, especially if the meat came from northern latitudes.

The Massachusetts Division of Fisheries and Wildlife recommends keeping the thickest part of the meat at 165 degrees Fahrenheit for at least three minutes, or cooking to 170 degrees to be extra safe.

“Cook until there is no trace of pink meat or fluid, paying close attention to the areas around joints and close to the bone,” according to the state agency.

While freezing can kill some species of Trichinella commonly found in pork, “adequate cooking is the only reliable way to kill Trichinella parasites,” according to the CDC.

Cooks should always verify the temperature with a meat thermometer, because “bear meat is often dark purple in color, so if you’re not used to cooking bear meat, it can be hard to judge when it’s done or not done,” says Douglas Clark , an environmental scientist at the University of Saskatchewan in Canada, to CBC News ’ Pratyush Dayal.

The CDC also advises keeping raw meat and its juices separate from other foods.

Trichinellosis infections are uncommon in the United States, and most cases result from eating wild game. Between January 2016 and December 2022, the CDC recorded 35 probable and confirmed cases from seven outbreaks, the majority of which were traced back to bear meat.

Worldwide, it’s a bigger problem, with an estimated 10,000 human infections per year, according to the World Organization for Animal Health . Most cases around the world result from eating the meat of domestic pigs or wild boar that hasn’t been cooked properly.

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Sarah Kuta | READ MORE

Sarah Kuta is a writer and editor based in Longmont, Colorado. She covers history, science, travel, food and beverage, sustainability, economics and other topics.

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This Slithering Creature Is Actually Made of Hundreds of Larvae
This Slithering Creature Is Actually Made of Hundreds of Larvae. We dare you to look closer. When Ian Stevenson returned home from a walk on Sunday morning, he thought he saw an earthworm with ...
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Worms that Crawl Together. Worm Researcher Evan July 14, 2011 3 Comments. A reader wrote to us recently about a group of worms that he observed moving together - that is, the worms were seen crawling "as one," such that the worms appeared to be traveling "one over the other to get to their destination.". The reader further observed ...
Ten Things to Know about Earthworms
Earthworm egg cases look like tiny lemons. When earthworms hatch, they look like tiny adults. (U.S. Department of Agriculture) Baby worms emerge from the eggs tiny but fully formed. They grow sex organs within the first two or three months of life and reach full size in about a year. They may live up to eight years, though one to two is more ...
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Anatomy Form and function Earthworm head. Depending on the species, an adult earthworm can be from 10 mm (0.39 in) long and 1 mm (0.039 in) wide to 3 m (9.8 ft) long and over 25 mm (0.98 in) wide, but the typical Lumbricus terrestris grows to about 360 mm (14 in) long. Probably the longest worm on confirmed records is Amynthas mekongianus that extends up to 3 m (10 ft) in the mud along the ...
Creature Feature: Wriggling Ways of the Earthworm
This shape-shift between long and skinny to short and fat happens because the segments are filled with fluid. Like a water balloon, squeezing the middle of the balloon pushes water to the ends, making them swell. To keep shape changes from getting too extreme in the worm body, strong connective-tissue fibers spiral around the segments.
Earthworms
The two worms join together, and a mucus is secreted so that each worm is enclosed in a tube of slime.Earthworms are hermaphrodites, meaning an individual worm has both male and female reproductive organs. Fun Fact. The scientific name for earthworms—Oligochaeata—means "few bristles." The bristles help the worms stay anchored in the ...
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Earthworm
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Why Do Composting Worms "Bundle Together"?
One of the reasons is because this is their form of communication. The study has been published in the journal of Ethology mentioning that worms uses 'touch' to communicate and influence each others behavior. After communication signals have been swapped, the worms will then collectively move in the same direction, meaning that worms do not ...
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Chris - So you've got a muscle that goes, or muscles, that go along the length of the worm and when they contract them make it short and fat vs. muscles that are in rings around the world making it get thinner and longer when they squirt or squeeze. Eleanor - In principle, yes. Chris - And it's using the antagonistic effects of those two to ...
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Invasive in the Spotlight: Jumping Worms
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Intestinal Parasites & Worms: Symptoms, Types, Treatment
Intestinal worms include: Pinworms (enterobiasis): These thread-like worms spread when you touch a surface contaminated with pinworm eggs and put your hands to your mouth. The eggs hatch in your small intestine. At night, female adults lay eggs around your anus (butthole). The process can cause anal itching.
Cornell Cooperative Extension
The worms are very active and have a sheen to them. Look for worm castings around your garden. The jumping worms alter the structure and chemistry of the soil dramatically, leaving a distinctive grainy soil full of worm castings, and they can damage lawns, landscapes and even the forest understory habitat. People unknowingly spread these worm ...
Jumping worms
Amynthas spp. Jumping worms, are non-native, invasive earthworms first confirmed in Wisconsin in 2013. Native to eastern Asia, they present challenges to homeowners, gardeners and forest managers. Jumping worms get their name from their behavior. When disturbed, they thrash, spring into the air and can even shed their tails to escape.
Why Are My Worms Trying to Escape?
Here are some common factors that can affect worm health: Temperature: Composting worms prefer temperatures between 55-77°F. If the temperature is too hot or too cold, it can stress out the worms, and they may try to escape. Keep your worm bin in a place where the temperature is stable and within the ideal range.
Sandworm (Dune)
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Family Members Infected With Parasitic Worms After Eating Undercooked
Six people became infected with parasitic roundworms after eating undercooked bear meat at a family reunion in South Dakota two years ago, according to a new report from the Centers for Disease ...