how marco polo travel

Venetian merchant and adventurer Marco Polo traveled from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295. He wrote 'Il Milione,' known in English as 'The Travels of Marco Polo.'

(1254-1324)

Who Was Marco Polo?

Marco Polo was a Venetian explorer known for the book The Travels of Marco Polo , which describes his voyage to and experiences in Asia. Polo traveled extensively with his family, journeying from Europe to Asia from 1271 to 1295 and remaining in China for 17 of those years. Around 1292, he left China, acting as escort along the way to a Mongol princess who was being sent to Persia.

Polo was born in 1254, in Venice, Italy. Although he was born to a wealthy Venetian merchant family, much of Polo’s childhood was spent parentless, and he was raised by an extended family. Polo's mother died when he was young, and his father and uncle, successful jewel merchants Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, were in Asia for much of Polo's youth.

Khan's Empire, the largest the world had ever seen, was largely a mystery to those living within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. A sophisticated culture outside the reaches of the Vatican seemed unfathomable, and yet that's exactly what the Polo brothers described to confounded Venetians when they arrived home.

Voyage to China

In 1271, Polo set out with his father and uncle, Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, for Asia, where they would remain until 1295. Unable to recruit the 100 priests that Kublai Khan had requested, they left with only two, who, after getting a taste of the hard journey ahead of them, soon turned back for home. The Polos' journey took place on land, and they were forced to cut through challenging and sometimes harsh territory. But through it all, Polo reveled in the adventure. His later memory for the places and cultures he witnessed was remarkable and exceptionally accurate.

As they made their way through the Middle East, Polo absorbed its sights and smells. His account of the Orient, especially, provided the western world with its first clear picture of the East's geography and ethnic customs. Hardships, of course, came his way. In what is now Afghanistan, Polo was forced to retreat to the mountains in order to recoup from an illness he'd contracted. Crossing the Gobi desert, meanwhile, proved long and, at times, arduous. "This desert is reported to be so long that it would take a year to go from end to end," Polo later wrote. "And at the narrowest point it takes a month to cross it. It consists entirely of mountains and sands and valleys. There is nothing at all to eat."

Finally, after four years of travel, the Polos reached China and Kublai Khan, who was staying at his summer palace known as Xanadu, a grand marble architectural wonder that dazzled young Polo.

The Polos had originally planned to be gone for only a few years. However, they were away from Venice for more than 23 years. Debate has swirled among historians as to whether Polo ever really made it to China. There is no evidence outside his famous book that he traveled so far east. Yet his knowledge of the culture and its customs are hard to dismiss. His later account told of Khan's extensive communication system, which served as the foundation for his rule. Polo's book, in fact, devotes five pages to the elaborate structure, describing how the empire's information highway efficiently and economically covered millions of square miles.

Khan's acceptance of the Polos offered the foreigners unparalleled access to his empire. Niccolo and Maffeo were granted important positions in the leader's Court. Polo, too, impressed Khan, who thought highly of the young man's abilities as a merchant. Polo's immersion into the Chinese culture resulted in him mastering four languages.

Polo the Explorer

Kublai Khan eventually employed Polo as a special envoy he sent to far-flung areas of Asia never before explored by Europeans, including Burma, India and Tibet. With Polo, as always, was a stamped metal packet from Khan himself that served as his official credentials from the powerful leader.

As the years wore on, Polo was promoted for his work. He served as governor of a Chinese city. Later, Khan appointed him as an official of the Privy Council. At one point, he was the tax inspector in the city of Yanzhou.

From his travels, Polo amassed not only great knowledge about the Mongol empire but incredible wonder. He marveled at the empire's use of paper money, an idea that had failed to reach Europe, and was in awe of its economy and scale of production. Polo's later stories showed him to be an early anthropologist and ethnographer. His reporting offers little about himself or his own thoughts, but instead gives the reader a dispassionate reporting about a culture he had clearly grown fond of.

Journey Back to Europe

Finally, after 17 years in Khan's court, the Polos decided it was time to return to Venice. Their decision was not one that pleased Khan, who'd grown to depend on the men. In the end, he acquiesced to their request with one condition: They escort a Mongol princess to Persia, where she was to marry a Persian prince.

Traveling by sea, the Polos left with a caravan of several hundred passengers and sailors. The journey proved harrowing, and many perished as a result of storms and disease. By the time the group reached Persia's Port of Hormuz, just 18 people, including the princess and the Polos, were still alive. Later, in Turkey, Genoese officials appropriated three-quarters of the family's wealth. After two years of travel, the Polos reached Venice. They'd been gone for more than two decades, and their return to their native land undoubtedly had its difficulties. Their faces looked unfamiliar to their family and they struggled to speak their native tongue.

'The Travels of Marco Polo'

Polo’s stories about his travels in Asia were published as a book called The Description of the World , later known as The Travels of Marco Polo . Just a few years after returning to Venice from China, Polo commanded a ship in a war against the rival city of Genoa. He was eventually captured and sentenced to a Genoese prison, where he met a fellow prisoner and writer named Rustichello. As the two men became friends, Polo told Rustichello about his time in Asia, what he'd seen, where he'd traveled and what he'd accomplished.

The book made Polo a celebrity. It was printed in French, Italian and Latin, becoming the most popular read in Europe. But few readers allowed themselves to believe Polo's tale. They took it to be fiction, the construct of a man with a wild imagination. The work eventually earned another title: Il Milione ("The Million Lies"). Polo, however, stood behind his book, and it influenced later adventurers and merchants.

Family and Kids

After his release from prison in 1299, Polo returned to Venice, where he married, raised three daughters and, for some 25 years, carried on the family business.

Polo died at his home in Venice on January 8, 1324. As he lay dying, friends and fans of his book paid him visits, urging him to admit that his book was fiction. Polo wouldn't relent. "I have not told half of what I saw," he said.

In the centuries since his death, Polo has received the recognition that failed to come his way during his lifetime. So much of what he claimed to have seen has been verified by researchers, academics and other explorers . Even if his accounts came from other travelers he met along the way, Polo's story has inspired countless other adventurers to set off and see the world. Two centuries after Polo's passing, Christopher Columbus set off across the Atlantic in hopes of finding a new route to the Orient. With him was a copy of Polo's book.

Watch "Marco Polo: Journey to the East" on HISTORY Vault

QUICK FACTS

Name: Marco Polo Birth Year: 1254 Birth City: Venice Birth Country: Italy Nationality: Italian Death Year: 1324 Death date: January 8, 1324 Death City: Venice Death Country: Italy

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• When a man is riding through this [Gobi] desert by night and for some reason ... he gets separated from his companions ... he hears spirit voices talking to him ...Often these voices lure him away from the path and he never finds it again."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• I have not told half of what I saw.
• Without stones there is no arch.
• This [Gobi] desert is reported to be so long that it would take a year to go from end to end; and at the narrowest point it takes a month to cross it ...There is nothing at all to eat."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• All the emperors of the world and all the kings of Christians and Sacracens combined would not possess such power or be able to accomplish so much as this same Kubilai, the Great Khan."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• You might well say that [the Great Khan] has mastered the art of alchemy. With these pieces of paper they can buy anything and pay for anything."[on the use of paper money; from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• The Christians say that their God was Jesus Christ, the Saracens Mahomet, the Jews Moses and the idolaters Sakyamuni Burkhan ... I do reverence and honor to all four, so that I may be sure of doing it to him who is greatest in heaven."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• When the pirates capture a ship, they help themselves to both ship and cargo; but they do not hurt the crew. They say to them: 'Go and fetch another cargo. Then, with luck, you may bring us some more.'"[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• I believe it was God's will that we should come back, so that men might know the things that are in the world."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• So it would have been better for the Caliph if he had given away his treasure to defend his land and his people rather than died with all his people and bereft of everything."[from "Marco Polo" by Richard Humble.]
• All things that [I] saw and did and with whatever [I] met of good or bad [I] put in writing and so told all in order to [my] lord."[from "Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu" by Laurence Bergreen.]

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Course: big history project   >   unit 8.

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Italian Trader at the Court of Kublai Khan

Marco polo’s book, from the travels of marco polo : book 2, chapter 18.

In this city of Cambalu [another spelling for Khanbaliq] is the mint of the grand khan, who may truly be said to possess the secret of the alchemists, as he has the art of producing money by the following process. He causes bark to be stripped from those mulberry-trees the leaves of which are used for feeding silk-worms, and takes from it that thin inner ring which lies between the coarser bark and the wood of the tree. This being steeped, and afterwards pounded in a mortar, until reduced to a pulp, is made into paper, resembling that which is made from cotton, but quite black. When ready for use, he has it cut into pieces of money of different sizes, nearly square, but somewhat longer than they are wide... The coinage of this paper money is authenticated with as much form and ceremony as if it were actually of pure gold or silver; for to each note a number of officers, specially appointed, not only subscribe their names, but affix their signets also; and when this has been regularly done by the whole of them, the principal officer, deputed by his majesty, having dipped into vermilion the royal seal committed to his custody, stamps with it the piece of paper, so that the form of the seal tinged with the vermilion remains impressed upon it, by which it receives full authenticity as current money, and the act of counterfeiting it is punished as a capital offence. When thus coined in large quantities, this paper currency is circulated in every part of the grand khan’s dominions; nor dares any person, at the peril of his life, refuse to accept it in payment. All his subjects receive it without hesitation, because wherever their business may call them, they can dispose of it again in the purchase of merchandise they may have occasion for; such as pearls, jewels, gold, or silver. With it, in short, every article may be procured...  All his majesty’s armies are paid with this currency, which is to them of the same value as if it were gold or silver. Upon these grounds, it may certainly be affirmed that the grand khan has a more extensive command of treasure than any other sovereign in the universe. (pp. 145–147)

Book 2, Chapter 23

The greater part of the inhabitants of the province of Cathay [now China] drink a sort of wine made from rice mixed with a variety of spices and drugs. This beverage, or wine as it may be termed, is so good and well flavoured that they do not wish for better. It is clear, bright, and pleasant to the taste, and being made very hot, has the quality of inebriating sooner than any other. Throughout this province there is found a sort of black stone, which they dig out of the mountains, where it runs in veins. When lighted, it burns like charcoal, and retains the fire much better than wood; inso- much that it may be preserved during the night, and in the morning be found still burning. These stones do not flame, excepting a little when first lighted, but during their ignition give out a considerable heat. It is true there is no scarcity of wood in the country, but the multitude of inhabitants is so immense, and their stoves and baths, which they are continually heating, so numerous, that the quantity could not supply the demand; for there is no person who does not frequent the warm bath at least three times in the week, and during the winter daily, if it is in their power. Every man of rank or wealth has one in his house for his own use; and the stock of wood must soon prove inadequate to such consumption; whereas these stones may be had in the greatest abundance, and at a cheap rate. (p. 155)

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Marco Polo: Facts, Biography & Travels

The story of his journey is told in "Il Milione" ("The Million"), commonly called "The Travels of Marco Polo." Polo's adventures influenced European mapmakers and inspired Christopher Columbus .

In Polo's day and even today, there has been some doubt about whether Polo really went to China . However, most experts agree that he did indeed make the journey.

Marco Polo was born around 1254 into a wealthy Venetian merchant family, though the actual date and location of his birth are unknown. His father, Niccolo, and his uncle Maffeo were successful jewel merchants who spent much of Marco's childhood in Asia. Marco's mother died when he was young; therefore, young Marco was primarily raised by extended family.

"The merchant families were the movers and shakers of commerce and government in medieval Venice," Susan Abernethy of The Freelance History Writer told LiveScience. They expanded long-distance trade and people began to expect accessibility to the foreign goods they brought. Merchants, like the Polo family, became increasingly wealthier.  

The Polo brothers went as far as China, then called Cathay, during their travels. They met the Mongol leader, Kublai Khan, at his court in Beijing. Kublai Khan, grandson of the great conqueror Genghis Khan, expressed interest in Christianity and requested that the Polo brothers return to Rome to speak to the pope on his behalf. Khan wanted the pope to send the Polo brothers back to Beijing with holy water and 100 learned priests.

"Khan was an exceptional ruler for many reasons," said Abernethy. "He opened up the Mongol and Chinese empires to travelers and traders. He patronized scholars, scientists, astronomers, doctors, artists and poets. Khan himself was an expert in Chinese poetry. In turn, Khan was able to take advantage of the knowledge of these foreigners in enormous projects such as efforts in water management and hydraulic engineering and warfare and siege engineering and other endeavors." The Polos were one family that Khan trusted and learned from. 

When Marco was 15, his father and uncle returned home. Though the pope did not grant their request, the Polo brothers decided to return to Asia. This time, they took 17-year-old Marco with them.

The slow road to China

The party sailed south from Venice across the Mediterranean to the Holy Land. They had brought two friars — the best they could do for Kublai Khan's request — but upon getting a taste of difficult travel life, the friars turned back. The Polos continued, traveling primarily overland and swinging north and south through Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan and the Pamir Mountains. Then, they cut across the vast Gobi Desert to Beijing.

The journey took three or four years and was rife with hardships and adventure. Marco Polo contracted an illness and was forced to take refuge in the mountains of northern Afghanistan for an extended period of time. Polo described there being "nothing at all to eat," in the Gobi Desert. Nevertheless, young Marco Polo enjoyed a keen sense of adventure and curiosity, taking in the sights, smells and cultural phenomena with wonder.

In Xanadu, with Kublai Khan

Finally, the Polos reached Beijing and met Kublai Khan at the summer palace, Xanadu, a glorious marble and gold structure that enchanted young Marco. Khan happily received the Polos. He invited them to stay and for Niccolo and Maffeo to become part of his court. Marco immersed himself in Chinese culture, quickly learning the language and taking note of customs. Khan was impressed and eventually appointed Marco the position of special envoy.

" I suspect Marco was educated and erudite and charming," said Abernethy. "He learned to speak four languages and exhibited a great curiosity and tolerance regarding his surroundings and the people he met with. Khan recognized his talents … Polo was devoted to serving the Emperor."

This position allowed Marco to travel to the far reaches of Asia — places like Tibet, Burma and India; places that Europeans had never before seen. Over the years, Marco was promoted to governor of a great Chinese city, to the tax inspector in Yaznhou, and to an official seat on the Khan's Privy Council.

"Khan provided Marco and his family with a 'paiza' — a gold tablet which authorized him to make use of a vast network of imperial horses and lodgings. This in effect was an official passport making the Polos honored guests of the emperor and allowing them to travel freely throughout Asia," said Abernethy.

Through it all, Marco Polo marveled at China's cultural customs, great wealth and complex social structure. He was impressed with the empire's paper money, efficient communication system, coal burning, gunpowder and porcelain, and called Xanadu "the greatest palace that ever was."

Return home

The Polos stayed in China for 17 years, amassing vast riches of jewels and gold. When they decided to return to Venice, unhappy Khan requested that they escort a Mongol princess to Persia, where she was to marry a prince.

During the two-year return journey by sea across the Indian Ocean, 600 passengers and members of the crew died. By the time they reached Hormuz in Persia and left the princess, just 18 people remained alive on board. The promised prince, too, was dead, so the Polos had to linger in Persia until a suitable match for the princess could be found.

Eventually, the Polos made it back to Venice. After being gone for 24 years, people did not recognize them and the Polos struggled to speak Italian.

Three years after returning to Venice, Marco Polo assumed command of a Venetian ship in a war against Genoa. He was captured and, while being held in a Genovese prison, he met a fellow prisoner, a romance writer called Rustichello. When prompted, Polo dictated his adventures to Rustichello. These writings, written in French, were titled "Books of the Marvels of the World," but are better known in English as "The Travels of Marco Polo."

"Polo's book was what we would call a "blockbuster hit" and made Marco Polo a household name.," said Abernethy. "At first, many viewed the book as fiction, more like a chivalric fable with its seemingly tall tales and descriptions of fantastical animals. Many copies of the book were created and it was translated into several languages. It was only after Polo's death that people realized the book contained the truth about his travels and what he witnessed."

Additionally, some readers questioned Polo's reliability, possibly leading to the book's popular Italian title, "Il Milione," short for "The Million Lies." Some questioned whether Polo even went to China or if the entire thing was hearsay. 

There were several reasons people doubted the veracity of the book. One was its writing process. Polo dictated from his copious notes, and Rustichello (or Rusticiano), who was an author of some renown "may have embellished the story," said Abernethy.

The publishing process of the time could also lead to truths being exaggerated or changed. The book came about before the printing press, and hand-copied manuscripts are subject to human error and willful changes, according to Abernethy. 

"There are what seem to be some glaring omissions," she said. "Polo doesn't mention the Great Wall of China, foot binding, tea or the use of chopsticks. However, none of this is unusual. There are other chroniclers throughout history who omitted obvious information from their writings."

It is also possible that Polo knowingly embellished or recounted stories he heard from other travelers. "Some of the tales seem far-fetched and it's clear Polo didn't witness some of the related information," said Abernethy. "Polo may have been somewhat naïve about what he was witnessing and seen everything through Western eyes, creating discord in the narrative. He may also have recounted stories he heard from other travelers."

That's his story and he's sticking to it

Polo stood by the book, however, and went on to start a business, marry and father three daughters. When Polo was on his deathbed in 1324, visitors urged him to admit the book was fiction, to which he famously proclaimed, "I have not told half of what I saw."

Though no authoritative version of Polo's book exists, researchers and historians in the subsequent centuries have verified much of what he reported. It is generally accepted that he reported faithfully what he could, though some accounts probably came from others that he met along the way. 

"It seems the preponderance of the evidence reveals that Polo did indeed visit China," said Abernethy. "He brings to light detailed information on the currencies used, including paper currency. He mentions the use of burning coal. The data he provides on salt production and revenues show a meticulous familiarity on the subject. Many of the place names he gives in the narrative have now been identified. His description of the Grand Canal of China is highly accurate. Indeed, the premise that he didn't visit China creates more questions than it answers."

The information in his book proved vital to European geographic understanding and inspired countless explorers — including Christopher Columbus, who, it is said, took a copy of Polo's book with him in 1492. 

"About fifty years after Polo's death, his work began to be utilized in the making of maps," said Abernethy. "Cartographers employed the descriptions of his travel routes and the names and terms he used to designate locations in the drawing of their maps."

Marco Polo did not introduce pasta to Italy. The dish had already existed in Europe for centuries, according to History.com. 

The claim that he brought ice cream to Europe is also disputed. A French ice-cream master, Gerard Taurin, argues that Polo did introduce ice cream from China. According to the International Dairy Foods Association, Polo returned with a recipe that resembled modern-day sherbet , and this recipe may have evolved into ice cream in the 16th century.

Polo was one of the first Europeans to see a rhinoceros. However, he thought they were unicorns.

Some scholars think that Polo was born on the island of Korcula on the Adriatic coast, in what is today Croatia, according to a 2011 article in the Telegraph. According to this theory, his father was a merchant from Dalmatia named Maffeo Pilic, who changed his last name to Polo when he relocated to Venice.

In 2011, Italy objected when a museum dedicated to Polo in the Chinese city of Yangzhou was opened not by Italian diplomats but by a former president of Croatia, Stjepan Mesic. Mesic described Polo as a "world explorer, born in Croatia, who opened up China to Europe."

Additional resources

• Project Gutenberg: The Travels of Marco Polo — Complete Text
• History.com: 11 Things You May Not Know About Marco Polo
• Silk Road Foundation: Marco Polo and His Travels

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Jessie Szalay is a contributing writer to FSR Magazine. Prior to writing for Live Science, she was an editor at Living Social. She holds an MFA in nonfiction writing from George Mason University and a bachelor's degree in sociology from Kenyon College. 

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The Ages of Exploration

Quick Facts:

Marco Polo is known for traveling along the Silk Road to China, where he explored and documented much of Asia not yet explored by Europeans.

Name : Marco Polo [mahr-koh] [poh-loh]

Birth/Death : 1254 - 1324

Nationality : Italian

Birthplace : Venice

Mosaic of the explorer Marco Polo

Introduction Marco Polo was a merchant in Venice before he became the famous explorer we know today. At 17, he left Venice with his father and uncle. They traveled the Silk Road to China where he met the great ruler Kublai Khan. Marco traveled much of China and the east, and his stories were written into a popular book. His book would go on to inspire other explorers. It is even said that Marco Polo’s exciting stories were a favorite of another famous explorer – Christopher Columbus. 1

Biography Early Life Marco Polo was born in 1254 in Venice, Italy. Not much is known of his early childhood. He was born into a family of wealthy merchants. His father and uncle, Niccolo and Maffeo Polo, were merchants who traveled often to Asia to trade valuable materials such as jewels and silk. As a child of a merchant family, he would have received a nice education that included reading, writing, and basic math. 2 Marco’s story begins with his father and uncle’s journeys. Niccolo and Maffeo left Venice in 1254 and traveled east. Marco would not see his father again until he was 15. China and other parts of eastern Asia were ruled by Kublai Khan, grandson to the Mongol warrior Genghis Khan. Kublai Khan was responsible for re-opening a 5000 mile trade route between Europe and Asia called the Silk Road. 3 The Polo brothers traded on this road for many years.

When they were ready to return home, war broke out between Kublai Khan and his brother Hulagu. This made the roads unsafe, and they were forced to stay in Bukhara (located in present day Uzbekistan) for three years. In 1264, still in Bukhara, they met an ambassador heading to Kublai Khan’s court in Khanbaliq and joined him on his trip. They hoped the Khan would provide them with safe passage home. They reached the court in 1266. Kublai Khan was very interested in hearing about the Polo’s culture and religion. He asked them to serve him as his ambassadors to the West. 4 The Khan gave the Polo’s a letter to give to the Pope asking him to send one hundred priests and holy water to convert his people to Christianity. 5 The Polo brothers left on their mission; however, the death of the Pope in 1268 held up their plans. It would not be until 1271 that they were able to return to Khanbaliq. This time, young Marco Polo would join them.

Voyages Principal Voyage Marco Polo’s voyage began in 1271 when he traveled to Kublai Khan’s court in China with his father and uncle. Marco was 17 years old. They were only able to get two of the one hundred priests Kublai Khan wanted. They sailed the Mediterranean to the Middle East, then traveled over land, all the way through Persia (modern day Iran), the Gobi Desert, Mongolia, along the Silk Road, and into China. The voyage took about three and a half years until they finally reached Kublai Khan’s palace. 6 The Khan noticed Marco’s interest in Mongol customs and culture. Marco already knew four languages prior to his journey, and he quickly picked up the Asian language. He also learned their writing, and even their style of war. 7 Kublai Khan was very impressed with Marco Polo. So he made Marco one of his ambassadors. This gave Marco special permission to travel freely throughout the Mongol Empire.

Kublai Khan often sent messengers, or envoys as they were called, on missions to different places. When they returned, they would report of their mission, but never about the people and customs of the places they went. 8 So the Khan began asking Marco to travel on missions. On these trips, Marco took great note of the lands and peoples he encountered, and the spices and jewels he saw. He told the Khan about all these things on his return. And Marco himself became very familiar with many aspects of Asian culture. He served the Khan for seventeen years before deciding to head back home to Venice. After all his years of traveling on the Khan’s behalf, Marco Polo had knowledge of, or had actually visited, a greater number of different countries of the world than anyone else known. 9

Subsequent Voyages At first, Kublai Khan was unwilling to allow the three Polo men to leave because he had become dependent on their services. He eventually allowed the men to return home. They chose to sail rather than make the trek over land. It was a long distance that took them China around India, and then traveled over land through Arabia, and by sea again across the Mediterranean to Venice. This journey across the Indian Ocean took two years.They reached Venice around 1295; Marco Polo had been gone for twenty-four years. The Polos were not welcomed back warmly like they had hoped. They had been away from home so long that they struggled to speak Italian again and were unrecognizable to their own families. He told his story to the people, but many of them did not believe the great voyage of Marco Polo.

Later Years and Death A few years after the Polos returned to Venice, war broke out between Venice and Genoa. Marco Polo was captured during the naval battle of Curzola. While in prison, he told his story to a fellow prisoner named Rustichello da Pisa. Da Pisa wrote down Marco’s detailed accounts of his travels to the east. The book was called Il Milione – Italian for “The Million.” He was released from prison in 1299, and returned to Venice. Marco continued his life as a merchant, although he never left Venice again. He married a woman named Donat Badoer in 1300. They had three daughters – Fantina, Bellela, and Moreta. Marco died in his home in January 1324, at almost 70 years old. He was buried in the Church of San Lorenzo. 10

Legacy The Polos were not the first Europeans to reach China and the east. But Marco Polo’s travels were inspiring. He wrote about the landscape, the Middle Eastern people, and details about the Mongol empire. These descriptions gave many Europeans their first look at the civilizations to the east. His tales continue to be debated even today. His original book is lost. It was translated many times into different languages, and these translations often conflict each other. But the most important thing we know is that Marco Polo helped make great connections between the East and the West.

• Susan Bivin Aller, Christopher Columbus (London: Lerner Books, 2009), 12.
• Nick McCarty, Marco Polo: The Boy Who Traveled the Medieval World (Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 2006), 12.
• Laurence Bergreen, Marco Polo (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007), 27.
• Bergreen, Marco Polo , 33.
• L.F. Benedetto, The Travels of Marco Polo (New York: Routledge, 2014), vii.
• Benedetto, The Travels of Marco Polo , 11.
• Marco Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, Volume 1 , ed. Henry Yule (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 27.
• Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian, 27.
• Polo, The Book of Ser Marco Polo , the Venetian, 29.
• “Marco Polo,” New World Encyclopedia, last modified September 20, 2016, http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Marco_Polo.

Bibliography

Aller, Susan Bivin. Christopher Columbus . London: Lerner Books, 2009.

Benedetto, L.F. The Travels of Marco Polo . New York: Routledge, 2014.

Bergreen, Laurence. Marco Polo . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2007.

McCarty, Nick. Marco Polo: The Boy Who Traveled the Medieval World . Washington DC: National Geographic Society, 2006.

New World Encyclopedia. “Marco Polo.” Last modified September 20, 2016. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Marco_Polo.

Polo, Marco. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian: Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East, Volume 1 . Edited by Henry Yule. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

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Long and Difficult Journey to China

In 1271, when he was 17 years old his dream came true. With a letter in reply from the new Pope Gregory X, and with valuable gifts, the Polos set out eastwards from Venice on their second trip to China. They crossed over the Mediterranean and Black Sea, passed through the land of Euphrates and Tigris Rivers, and reached the age-old city of Middle East – Baghdad. They headed south and eastwards to the prosperous seaport of Ormuz at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. From there they journeyed towards north and then east, successively crossing the desolate Iran Plateau and the snow-covered Pamirs. Overcoming the trials of illness, hunger and thirst, escaping bandits and wild animals, they finally reached Xinjiang. Marco Polo was attracted by beautiful Kashgar and Hetian famed for its jade. Then they traversed Taklimakan Desert, arrived in Dunhuang and visited the Mogao Grottoes, noted for Buddhist sculptures and frescos. They continued on their journey along the Hexi Corridor and reached Shang-du in Inner Mongolia (the summer palace of Kublai Khan) in 1275 AD. Kublai Khan gave them a hospitable reception there and took them to Dadu (now Beijing).

17-years Service in Kublai Khan's Court

Clever Marco Polo quickly learned Mongolian, Chinese and became familiar with the Chinese customs. Soon he became a confidant of Kublai Khan. He was appointed to high posts in the court and was sent on many special diplomatic missions to many places in China, India and some kingdoms of Southeast Asia, such as Vietnam, Burma and Sumatra. Astonished at the wealth of China, luxurious imperial palace and prosperous cities, he assiduously investigated the customs, geography, people and culture of all places he visited. Then he reported to Kublai Khan in detail. 17 years passed quickly and Marco Polo missed his hometown more and more.

Return Home and the 'Travels of Marco Polo'

In 1292, Kublai Khan agreed to let Marco Polo, his father and uncle return home, after they convoyed a Mongolian princess Kokachin to marry a Persian king. In 1295, they finally reached Venice by sea via the Black Sea and Constantinople. The information about China and some Asian states they brought back, aroused great interest among the Venetians. In 1298 AD, Marco Polo joined in the war between Venice and Genoa. Unfortunately he was captured and put into a Genoese prison, where he met a writer, Rustichello da Pisa. The writer recorded the story of his travels, well-known as The Travels of Marco Polo. The book has detailed descriptions of the wealth of China, a Japan filled with gold, and the exotic custom of Central Asia, West Asia and Southeast Asia soon made it a bestseller. Afterwards, the book became very popular in Europe and paved the way for the arrivals of countless westerners in the following centuries.

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11 Things You May Not Know About Marco Polo

By: Evan Andrews

Updated: August 9, 2023 | Original: March 12, 2013

1. Marco Polo’s famous travelogue was penned in prison.

Marco Polo is remembered thanks to a colorful and popular narrative about his eastward voyage, known simply as The Travels of Marco Polo . Ironically, this record of Polo’s freewheeling years as an explorer was written while he languished behind bars. In 1298, three years after he returned from his journey, Polo was captured after leading a Venetian galley into battle against the rival Italian city-state of Genoa.

While in prison he encountered Rustichello of Pisa, a fellow captive who was known as a talented writer of romances. Eager to document his years as a traveler, Polo dictated his life story to Rustichello, who acted as a kind of ghostwriter. By the time of their release in 1299, the two men had completed the book that would make Marco Polo a household name.

2. Marco Polo was not the first European to travel to Asia.

Marco Polo may be the most storied Far East traveler, but he certainly was not the first. The Franciscan monk Giovanni da Pian del Carpini reached China in the 1240s—over 20 years before Polo left Europe—and gained an audience with the Great Kahn of the Mongol empire. Other Catholic emissaries would later follow, including William of Rubruck, who traveled east in the 1250s on a quest to convert the Mongols to Christianity.

These early missionaries were largely inspired by the myth of Prester John, a legendary king who was believed to rule over a Christian empire in the East. Polo would later mention the fictional monarch in his book and even described him as having fought a great battle against the Mongol ruler Genghis Kahn.

3. Marco Polo barely knew his father and uncle when they began their expedition.

A few months before Marco Polo was born in 1254, his father Niccolo and uncle Maffeo left Italy on a trading excursion to Asia. The brothers returned to Venice in 1269, and it was only then that 15-year-old Marco finally met Niccolo, the father he never knew he had. Although he was essentially a stranger to the elder Polos, Marco joined them when they left on their more extensive second trip in 1271. While they originally planned only a brief stay in the Far East, the three men would eventually travel Asia together for more than 20 years.

4. Marco Polo spent much of his journey as an envoy for the Mongol ruler Kublai Kahn.

The Polos were merchants who dealt in rare items like silk, gems and spices, but their extensive travels were more than just a trading mission. Marco, Maffeo and Niccolo were also employed as emissaries for the Mongol emperor Kublai Kahn , whom the elder Polos had met and befriended on an earlier journey east. Young Marco would forge an especially strong bond with the Great Kahn, who later dispatched him to China and Southeast Asia as a tax collector and special messenger. Kublai Kahn’s trust and protection allowed the Polos to move freely within the borders of the Mongol Empire.

Marco was even provided with a “paiza”—a gold tablet that authorized him to make use of a vast network of imperial horses and lodgings. Thanks to this official passport, the Polos traveled through Asia not merely as wandering merchants, but as honored guests of the Great Kahn himself.

5. Marco Polo mistook some of the animals he saw for mythical creatures.

After his return from Asia, Marco Polo thoroughly documented his encounters with unfamiliar animals such as elephants, monkeys and crocodiles. He described the latter, for instance, as giant, sharp-clawed “serpents” that could “swallow a man … at one time.” But the traveler often confused these strange faunae with creatures from myth and legend. One of the first Europeans to glimpse an Asian rhinoceros, Polo thought the horned beasts were unicorns.

6. Marco Polo was among the first Europeans to describe many of the advanced technologies found in China.

It is a common misconception that Marco Polo introduced pasta to Italy—in truth, the dish had already existed in Europe for centuries—but there’s little doubt he made Westerners aware of many Chinese inventions. Among other things, Marco familiarized many of his readers with the concept of paper money, which only caught on in Europe in the years after his return. Polo also described coal—not widely used in Europe until the 18th century—and may even have introduced eyeglasses to the West.

Meanwhile, he offered one of the historical record’s most detailed accounts of the Mongol post system, a complex network of checkpoints and couriers that allowed Kublai Kahn to administrate his vast empire.

7. The Polos barely made it out of Asia alive.

After enduring decades of travel and surviving several brushes with death, the Polos encountered their biggest hurdles when they tried to return to Italy. Worried that their departure would make him appear weak, the elderly Kublai Kahn initially refused to release his favorite envoys from service.

The Polos were only allowed to leave the Great Kahn’s realm in 1292 when they agreed to escort a Mongol princess to Persia by sea. While they succeeded, the mission apparently proved to be the most perilous leg of the Polos’ journey. Marco later wrote that the members of his company were among the only survivors of a deadly sea voyage that claimed hundreds of lives.

8. The Polos lost much of their fortune while returning home.

Once they moved out of Mongol territory, Marco, Niccolo and Maffeo could no longer rely on Kublai Kahn’s protection. As the travelers passed through the kingdom of Trebizond, in modern-day Turkey, the local government robbed them of some 4,000 Byzantine gold coins. Despite this significant loss, the Polos retained enough of their cargo to arrive home in 1295 as wealthy men. According to one account, the Venetians concealed most of their gems by sewing precious stones into the linings of their coats.

9. Many of Marco Polo’s contemporaries dismissed his stories as lies—and some modern historians still do.

Marco Polo’s elaborate descriptions of the royal palace at Xanadu, the metropolis of Quinsai (modern-day Hangzhou) and the many wonders of the Orient were simply too much for some readers to believe. In fact, by the time he was an old man, Polo’s fellow Venetians had largely branded him as a teller of tall tales. Readers had some reason to be skeptical: Polo and his ghostwriter, Rustichello, were prone to exaggeration and flights of fancy.

For instance, the famous traveler often fictitiously inserted himself into battle scenes and court intrigues. While most modern historians still believe the bulk of his book to be factual, others have dismissed it as an outright fabrication and claim that Polo never even made it to China. For his part, Marco never admitted to a single lie. Even on his deathbed, he is said to have remarked, “I did not tell half of what I saw.”

10. Marco Polo’s route became largely impassable after his return to Venice.

Kublai Kahn died during the Polos’ return to Venice, sending the Mongol empire into decline and crushing any chance that Marco would ever return to the Far East. Tribal groups soon reclaimed land along the once-prosperous trading route known as the Silk Road , effectively cutting off a vital artery connecting East and West. With the land route to China growing increasingly dangerous, few travelers dared set out on wide-ranging journeys for several years. In fact, Polo reportedly never left Venetian territory for the last two decades of his life.

11. Marco Polo was a major influence on other explorers, including Christopher Columbus.

Marco Polo never saw himself as an explorer—he preferred the term “wayfarer”—but his do-or-die approach to travel helped inspire a whole generation of globetrotting adventurers. Among his acolytes was Christopher Columbus, who carried a well-thumbed copy of The Travels of Marco Polo on his voyages to the New World. Not realizing that the Mongol empire had already fallen by the time of his voyage, Columbus even planned to follow in Polo’s footsteps by making contact with Kublai Kahn’s successor.

HISTORY Vault: Columbus the Lost Voyage

Ten years after his 1492 voyage, Columbus, awaiting the gallows on criminal charges in a Caribbean prison, plotted a treacherous final voyage to restore his reputation.

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Walking in the Footsteps of Marco Polo — Discover 13th Century China

Marco Polo was an Italian traveler who is probably the most renowned Western traveler of China in ancient times. He ended up visiting many destinations in China, including famous tourist areas today such as Beijing, Xi'an, and Hangzhou.

The History of Marco Polo and His Renowned Travels

Although it is not clear where he was born (either at Curzola , off the coast of Dalmatia or at Venice), Marco Polo grew up in Venice.

Marco Polo's journey to China was itself inspired by his father's and uncle's traveling to the country after listening to their stories. His father and uncle, who had been to China before during their trading on the Silk Road, had one time visited Kublan Khan who was an emperor in the Yuan Dynasty .

In 1271, his father and uncle took him along to China then called Cathy. He was 6 years old. The trio went through Armenia, Persia, and Afghanistan to Pamirs.

After Kashgar and the Taklamakan Desert, they reached Suchow ( Dunhuang ) city and Marco stayed there for a year.

After Xinjiang, the trio traveled to Inner Mongolia . They then met the King at Shangdou (Xanadu, near Hohhot), and then went to Beijing . The trio stayed in the Khan's court for 17 years and acquired wealth in form of jewels and gold.

Polo then explored southern cities of China , and the trio returned home in 1292. They passed through South China Sea to Sumatra and the Indian Ocean, and finally docked at Hormuz.

Marco Polo on the Silk Road

The Silk Road refers to a combination of routes that link China to Central Asia. Polo spent four years marching along the silk road to the capital of Beijing. 3 and half years after leaving Venice, the trio finally arrived to the original capital of Kublai Khan at Shangdou — his summer residence. His winter residence was Beijing.

Marco has written a book The Travels of Marco Polo detailing his journey to China. The book aroused the desire of Europeans to explore China partly because it portrayed the prosperity of the people there.The ancient tourist camel route is famous for ruins and classical and beautiful ancient architecture, Buddhism temples, kingly tombs and Mogao Grottoes. Some of the attractions include the The Grand Budha Temple in Zhangye, which was an important city on Silk Road during ancient times.

Marco Polo came home with a Chinese kite , and this helped the kite to become popular around the world. Many Westerners traveled to China later on in the centuries that followed, after the book, which had become famous in Europe, enlightened more about China.

Marco Polo in Xi'an

Xi'an has old architecture such as the the Shanxi Provincial Museum with more than 370,000 relics including bronzes, Terra Cotta figures, gold and silver wares. Other ancient attractions include the Great Mosque .

Marco Polo in Shangdou (Xanadu, Inner Mongolia)

Xanadu was the summer capital of Kublai Kahn's Yuan Dynasty before being moved to Jin Dynasty capital of Zhōngdu — present day Beijing.

It is composed of Court City, the Imperial City and the Outer City and has watchtowers and famous buildings such as the Crystal Palace and Great Joy Palace.

Kublai Khan's palace in Xanadu was made of cane supported by 200 silk cords . These could be transported easily in pieces when the Emperor of China moved. The rooms of the fine marble palace were gilt and walls were painted with figures of men and beast. Polo's detailing of the paintings reveals that they were attractive and astonishing. Coleridge, a English poet , was inspired by the description to write a poem about Khan's stately dome in Xanadu (Shangdou). Khan had at that palace, 10, 000 speckles white horses whose milk was reserved for his family and a tribe that had won a victory for Genghis Khan.

Marco Polo in Beijing

Beijing was then called Cambaluc or Khanbalig or the city of Khan . It was, in history, termed as the most magnificent in the world, built because astrologers had predicted rebellion in the old city.

According to Polo, Khan's palace here was the best that ever was — walls covered with gold and silver, and the large hall could accommodate 6,000 people for a dinner.

It has been claimed that this palace might have been built underneath the Forbidden City .

Marco Polo also contributed to introduction of Catholic church and Christianity in China . Historically, Beijing also had a large number of Nestorians who had come to China in the 7th Century and established the Church of the East. Marco Polo reported about the presence of this type of Christians when he went back to Europe from China. The Catholic priest then sent Christian missionaries in Beijing in 1294 and the Mongols allowed building of Catholic churches. The Catholics were later attacked together with the Nestorians when the latter were rebelled against by the Mongols. The Catholics and Mongols were expelled during the Ming Dynasty.

The Hutongs

Hutongs in Beijing reveal ancient architecture that has been around since Marco Polo days. They include the Sanmiaojie Hutong which is the oldest one; and Nanluoguxiang Hutong where you can see age-old siheyuans, archways, wall carvings, and former residences of socialites.

Dongxijiaominxiang is the longest Hutong; and Yandaixiejie Hutong ('Tobacco Pouch Diagonal Alley') is where you can shop for the best hutong souvenirs.

Read more about Beijing Hutongs .

Marco Polo Bridge

The Marco Polo Bridge is over the Youngding River , and is located 15 km southwest of Tiananmen Square. It is the oldest existing multi-arched stone bridge in the Beijing area and named after Marco Polo.

Marco Polo in Yangzhou

Marco Polo was appointed by Khan as an official of the Privy Council in 1277 and for 3 years he was a tax inspector in Yangzhou, a city on the Grand Canal, northeast of Nanking (Nanjing). He also visited Karakorum and part of Siberia.

In addition to the famous water towns south of the Yangtze River , Yangzhou gardens such as the Heyuan Garden and Geyuan Garden reflect the typical Chinese garden architecture

Marco Polo in Hangzhou

Marco Polo visited Hangzhou in the late 13th century. He refers to the city as "beyond dispute the finest and the noblest in the world."

Some of the attractions that will give you a feel for Polo's experience include West Lake , Lingyin Temple , Song Dynasty Town , and the Hangzhou National Silk Museum.

Marco Polo in Quanzhou

Quanzhou was the departure point for Marco Polo's escorting of the Mongol princess bride Kököchin who was to marry Persian Ilkhanate. It is rich in culture and ancient architecture.

Some of the places to visit include Kaiyuan Temple . You will find the Quanzhou Bay Exhibition Hall of Ancient Ships at Kaiyuan Temple, a ship used by fisherman during the Song Dynasty (960–1279), and which was unearthed 40 years ago.

Other ancient places include the Quanzhou Maritime Museum , Qingjing Mosque, Heavenly Empress Palace and Luoyang Bridge, in addition to Mt. Qingyuan Scenic Area and Water Rock Temple scenic spots.

Footsteps of Marco Polo Tours

• 4-Day Beijing Discovery Tour : Apart from visiting the famous attractions such as the Great Wall of China, many tourists also travel to see the 266.5 meters long Marco Polo Bridge near Tian'anmen Square.
• Half-Day Hutong Walking Tour : You get to see some of the oldest structures built during medieval China, when Marco Polo was in the country.
• 7-Day Hangzhou & Its Neighbors Tour : Marco Polo details Hangzhou as the most beautiful city in the world during his 13th century travels. This tour takes you to places such as West Lake, Wuzhen Water Town, and the nearby Yellow Mountains.

We can also arrange as much or as little of what Polo saw in a unique, tailor-made tour of China, just for you. All you need to do is contact us .

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