tourism and hospitality marketing book

Marketing Tourism and Hospitality

Concepts and Cases

• © 2021
• Richard George 0

ICON College of Technology and Management/Falmouth University, London, UK

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• Explores the fundamental principles of marketing applied to tourism and hospitality businesses
• Includes a chapter on the most important issues in marketing tourism
• Places special emphasis on smaller tourism businesses

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This textbook explores the fundamental principles of marketing applied to tourism and hospitality businesses, placing special emphasis on SMEs in the international tourism industry. It includes examples from a wide range of destinations, from emerging markets to high-income countries. Taking a comprehensive approach, the book covers the whole spectrum of tourism and hospitality marketing including destination marketing, marketing research, consumer behaviour, and digital and social media marketing. Practical in focus, it gives students the tools, techniques, and underlying theory required to design and implement successful tourism marketing plans.

Chapters contain in-depth case studies, including companies like Marine Dynamics Shark Tours (South Africa), Reality Tours & Travel (Mumbai, India), and Makeover Tours (Turkey). Thematic case studies include ‘Halal Tourism in Southeast Asia’, and ‘Marketing and Branding Rwanda’. These illustrate key concepts and theory, with definitions, key summaries, and discussion questions providing further insights. This textbook is ideal for undergraduate and postgraduate students looking for a comprehensive text with a practical orientation. 

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Table of contents (14 chapters)

Front matter, understanding marketing in the tourism and hospitality industry, tourism and hospitality marketing principles.

Richard George

Characteristics of Tourism and Hospitality Marketing

Understanding the tourism and hospitality market, tourism and hospitality consumer behaviour, tourism and hospitality marketing research, designing the tourism and hospitality marketing strategy, tourism and hospitality marketing planning, the tourism and hospitality marketing environment, market segmentation, targeting, and positioning, implementing the tourism and hospitality marketing mix, tourism and hospitality products, branding, and pricing, tourism distribution, promoting and advertising tourism and hospitality products, designing the tourism and hospitality promotions mix, digital marketing in tourism and hospitality, understanding tourism and hospitality marketing issues, quality service experiences through internal and relationship marketing, marketing tourism destinations, authors and affiliations, about the author.

Richard George  is a senior lecturer at ICON College of Technology & Management/Falmouth University in the UK. He was formerly Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Cape Town (UCT) and Director of the Tourism Research Unit at UCT. His research interests include safety and security issues and consumer behaviour in the travel and tourism industry. He holds a PhD in Marketing from UCT, South Africa. 

Bibliographic Information

Book Title : Marketing Tourism and Hospitality

Book Subtitle : Concepts and Cases

Authors : Richard George

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64111-5

Publisher : Palgrave Macmillan Cham

eBook Packages : Business and Management , Business and Management (R0)

Copyright Information : The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Softcover ISBN : 978-3-030-64110-8 Published: 09 May 2021

eBook ISBN : 978-3-030-64111-5 Published: 08 May 2021

Edition Number : 1

Number of Pages : XXIII, 500

Number of Illustrations : 60 b/w illustrations, 75 illustrations in colour

Topics : Tourism Management , Marketing

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• Details for: Tourism and hospitality marketing /

Tourism and hospitality marketing / Maria Criselda G. Gatchalian-Badilla.

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Outcomes-Based Education (OBE).

Includes bibliographical references.

Chapter 1 : Introduction to tourism and hospitality marketing Chapter 2 : The tourist market and segmentation Chapter 3 : Tourism and consumer behavior Chapter 4 : The marketing plan Chapter 5 : The tourism and hospitality product Chapter 6 : Pricing in tourism and hospitality Chapter 7 : Promotional tools : advertising, direct marketing, personal selling, public relations, and sales promotions Chapter 8 : Digital marketing Chapter 9 : Distribution channels in the tourism and hospitality industry Chapter 10 : Destination branding and marketing Chapter 11 : Relationship marketing Chapter 12 : Tourism an hospitality marketing and its future

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Crisis management research (1985–2020) in the hospitality and tourism industry: A review and research agenda

Associated data.

The global tourism industry has already suffered an enormous loss due to COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 2019) in 2020. Crisis management, including disaster management and risk management, has been becoming a hot topic for organisations in the hospitality and tourism industry. This study aims to investigate relevant research domains in the hospitality and tourism industry context. To understand how crisis management practices have been adopted in the industry, the authors reviewed 512 articles including 79 papers on COVID-19, spanning 36 years, between 1985 and 2020. The findings showed that the research focus of crisis management, crisis impact and recovery, as well as risk management, risk perception and disaster management dominated mainstream crisis management research. Look back the past decade (2010 to present), health-related crisis (including COVID-19), social media, political disturbances and terrorism themes are the biggest trends. This paper proposed a new conceptual framework for future research agenda of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Besides, ten possible further research areas were also suggested in a TCM (theory-context-method) model: the theories of crisis prevention and preparedness, risk communication, crisis management education and training, risk assessment, and crisis events in the contexts of COVID-19, data privacy in hospitality and tourism, political-related crisis events, digital media, and alternative analytical methods and approaches. In addition, specific research questions in these future research areas were also presented in this paper.

1. Introduction

A crisis is defined as ‘an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, which can seriously impact an organisation's performance and generate negative comments' ( Coombs, 2019 , p. 3). Today's hospitality and tourism industry is sensitive to various external and internal challenges and crises ( Fink, 1986 ; Henderson, 2003 ; Laws et al., 2005 ; McKercher & Hui, 2004 ). According to McKercher and Hui (2004 , p.101), crises ‘disrupt the tourism and hospitality industry on a regular basis’. The reduction of tourist arrivals and expenditures due to the crises hits the industry and its related stakeholders; and creates vulnerability. Different service providers (consisting of those pertaining to accommodation, transportation, inbound and outbound tourism, and others) may have to suffer for a short or longer period of time before full recovery. Moreover, pressures from competitors also worsened the situations for certain organisations due to the change in comparative and competitive advantages ( Wut, 2019 ). Only a few studies in crisis management were conducted in the early years, and most of them related to crisis impacts on tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). Fortunately, a growing body of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry has emerged over the past decade.

The scope of crisis management includes crisis prevention, crisis preparedness, crisis response and crisis revision ( Hoise & Smith, 2004 ). Detecting any warning signs is an important task in crisis prevention. Crisis preparedness usually involves forming crisis management teams, formulating crisis preparedness plans and training spokespersons. Organisation response is usually under the spotlight. The mechanism by which we learn from a crisis is a central topic under crisis revision ( Crandall et al., 2014 ). Unfortunately, crisis management received insufficient attention in the hospitality and tourism research for decades ( Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). This research stream started with natural disaster management, terrorism and disease management ( Laws et al., 2005 ). Recently, information technology has been heavily used in the business and tourism sectors ( Buhalis & Law, 2008 ; Navio-Marco et al., 2018 ). Social media is becoming an emerging research focus that triggers new thoughts on crisis management in the contemporary world ( Zeng & Gerritsen, 2014 ). Data security and privacy over confidential company information and customer personal information are the main concerns. Nowadays, given the global outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic and the economic downturn faced by many countries, crisis management has again attracted organisational and research attention ( Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Gössling et al., 2020 ).

Crisis management also involves risk management, as crisis happens when risk is not managed properly and effectively. For instance, if tourism providers do not pay attention to risk management may put the lives of the tourists at risk. According to Dorfman and Cather (2013) , risk is the possibility of harm or possible loss. Risk refers to the fluctuation in neutral or negative outcomes that result from an uncertain event on the basis of probability. Risk management is a process in which an organisation identifies and manages its exposures to risk to match its strategic goals. The scope includes goals setting, risk identification, risk measurement, handling of risk and implementation techniques, and effectiveness of monitoring ( Dorfman & Cather, 2013 ).

Crises in extreme scales with catastrophic consequences can be disasters. Disasters normally refer to events that an organisation cannot control, like natural disasters. Possible disaster events include terrorism, floods, hurricanes and earthquakes. The term ‘crisis’ has a broad meaning that includes events involving technical or human mistakes as well as disasters ( Coombs, 2019 ; Faulkner, 2001 ). Thus, crisis management in this study covers both risk management and disaster management.

Several review papers on crisis management and recovery are available. Mair et al. (2016) conducted a review on post-crisis recovery with 64 articles published between 2000 and 2012. A short summary on tourism crisis and disaster was also published ( Aliperti et al., 2019 ). Ritchie and Jiang (2019) reviewed 142 papers on tourism crisis and disaster management; and identified three areas including crisis preparedness and planning; crisis response and recovery; and crisis resolution and reflection. It was found that the papers, including the framework testing, lack conceptual and theoretical foundation, which exhibited unbalanced research themes ( Ritchie & Jiang, 2019 ). A bibliometric study of citation networks was conducted by other researchers but only on the crisis and disaster management topic ( Jiang, Ritchie, & Verreynne, 2019 ). The most recent one was focused on diseases ( Chen, Law, & Zhang, 2020 ). The afore-said review articles followed the traditional classification of the three-stage crisis management model (pre-crisis, crisis event and post-crisis) ( Richardson, 1994 ). A clear research gap exists in the review literature in terms of the kind of crisis management, risk management and disaster management research that has been conducted in the hospitality and tourism fields, especially in the digital era; and such research need becomes significant due to the spread of COVID-19. This current review paper considers risk management and disaster management as part of crisis management. This review scope is much wider than those of past review papers. Furthermore, past literature review emphasised only the research published in top academic journals. Zanfardini et al. (2016) concluded that analyses of literature should not be confined to the highest impact journals because crisis management is an interdisciplinary subject; and the related articles might not necessarily appear only in the top journals. Thus, surveying also the lower impact journals would be useful, and this study would also shed light on those works.

This study aims to systematically examine and evaluate the literature of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. As the research areas emerge, more papers were recorded in the last decade. It is expected that many research papers on topics relating to the COVID-19 crises will be produced shortly in the near future. The major themes and future research opportunities and agenda will be identified after a thematic content analysis of related peer-reviewed journal articles.

This study seeks to address the following questions:

• 1) What are the main themes of the crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry?
• 2) What is the future research agenda regarding the hospitality and tourism industry and crisis management?

2. Methodology

This systematic literature review adopted steps suggested by Liberati et al. (2009) for the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA): 1) related articles were identified through databases and other sources, 2) records were obtained after the duplicates were removed, 3) the records were screened, 4) full-text papers were assessed for eligibility and 5) the studies were included in the qualitative synthesis ( Liberati et al., 2009 ).

We targeted our literature search on electronic databases for peer-reviewed journal articles that focused on crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry and from journals published since 1980. The search included numerous academic platforms consisting of the ABI/Inform, Academic Research Premier (via EBSCO host), Business Source Complete (via EBSCO host), Web of Science and Scopus databases to capture academic journal papers with the captioned topic. This approach was considered suitable for a literature review analysis centred on a subject that has undoubtedly been researched from a multi-disciplinary perspective ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Literature search was organised around eight keywords consisting of ‘tourism’, ‘hospitality’, ‘crisis’, ‘crisis management’, ‘risk’, ‘risk management’, ‘disaster’ and ‘disaster management’. Papers retained for subsequent analyses met the following criteria:

• (i) Published in peer-reviewed journals since 1980;
• (ii) Published in the English language;
• (iii) Involves the field of business, management and accounting;
• (iv) Seeks to study crisis management, including risk management and disaster management, in the tourism and hospitality industry;
• (v) Comprise studies presenting primary or secondary research data published as full length papers or short reports;
• (vi) Removal of duplicate papers from database findings (Same paper generated from different platforms).

In total, 1168 papers were generated from the literature search which involves different combinations of the aforementioned keywords. The earliest article was published in 1985. Overall, the selected articles were published between 1985 and 2020. Figures for 2020 are incomplete and given here for reference only. Authors assessed the full-text papers retrieved for inclusion in this review.

The titles, abstracts and full texts of the papers were reviewed and examined ( Wut et al., 2021 ). Two coders were involved in the process to avoid subjective bias judgement from a single coder ( Neuendorf, 2002 ). Discussions between coders were arranged to resolve the discrepancy ( Krippendorff, 2013 ). After initial screening, 534 papers meeting the above criteria were selected. A subsequent step involved checking if the research questions of this study can be answered through analysing the papers in the database. A total of 22 papers were dropped as they could not answer one of the research questions. The final analysis involved 512 papers for subsequent descriptive analyses in various aspects like the number of authors, the first author's nationality and study locations. Papers involving more than one study location were classified under Global. Attention was paid to the themes of journals under the category of tourism, hospitality and others as business-related journals. Publications that covered both tourism and hospitality were classified under hospitality. We also identified the key topics of each article. These items were used for statistical analysis to identify longitudinal trends of research themes. The papers were categorised under various hospitality and tourism industry sectors, including tour operators/travel agencies, hotels, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising industry. They were then assigned to one of the six crisis types: political events, terrorism, health issues, financial crisis, natural disasters and human errors. The research foci of the articles were subsequently ascertained and summarised. The identification process was completed by content analysis for which an inductive approach was adopted. If any doubt regarding classification emerged for a particular paper, a new category was devised for that paper to minimise ambiguity ( Eisenhardt, 1989 ). When more than one topic was discussed in a paper (for example, crisis prevention and crisis preparedness), the paper was classified under the category of crisis management (multiple topics). Thus, 10 specific research topics were obtained for a general crisis management area: crisis management (multiple topics), crisis impact, crisis recovery, crisis resilience, crisis communication, crisis response, crisis event (description), crisis preparedness, crisis prevention and crisis management (organisational) learning. Four research topics were identified for a general risk management area: risk management (multiple topics), risk perception, risk assessment and risk communication. Finally, three research topics were found for a general disaster management area: disaster management (multiple topics), disaster event (description) and disaster recovery. COVID-19 was categorised as a separate topic, as the related articles covered the areas in both crisis and risk management.

3. Findings

3.1. journals, authors and study locations.

The results indicated that 308 (60.2%) of the papers came from 10 journals; and 204 papers were come from other journals. Among these 10 journals, Tourism Management published 85 papers; Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published 44 papers, International Journal of Hospitality Management had 34 papers and Current Issues in Tourism had 33 papers. Annuals of Tourism Research published 26 papers, and Journal of Travel Research secured 25 papers. The publications were highly ranked according to the Scimago Journal and Country Ranking (SRJ). In the last decade, all these journals except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing published more papers than before ( Table 1 ). Furthermore, other high ranking journals were included in the ‘Others’ category, including the Journal of Vacation Marketing with two papers. One paper appeared in the Public Relation Review, a top Journal in the field of public relations. Another paper was from the Journal of World Business, a first quarter journal according to the SRJ. Three other papers appeared in Asia Pacific Business Review, a second quarter journal according to the SRJ. Thus, crisis management has been considered a hot research topic by the scholars and high ranking academic journals in the hospitality and tourism field.

List of tourism and hospitality journals (N = 512).

As a whole, tourism-focused journals were comparatively favoured (286 papers) to hospitality (74 papers) or other (152 papers) journals on the crisis management topic and related research objectives. Among the tourism-focused journals, Tourism Management has been the dominant outlet. The number of papers increased by three times over the last decade. Among the hospitality journals, International Journal of Hospitality Management (34 papers) has been the most popular.

Regarding authorship, two authors collaboration (157 papers, 30.7%) has been found to be the most common occurrence in these papers. Three-person authorship was also highly adopted (143 papers, 27.9%), followed by single authorship for 129 papers (25.2%). Note that a total of 60 papers had four authors (11.7%), five authors (14 papers, 2.7%), six authors (7 papers, 1.4%), seven authors (1 paper, 0.2%), and eight authors (2 papers, 0.4%). Collaborations among authors are common. The most productive first authors in this field were Joan C. Henderson (9 papers), Bingjie Liu (9 papers), Bruce Prideaux (7 papers) and Brent W. Ritchie (6 papers). The most productive second authors were Lori Pennington-Gray (13 papers), Brent W. Ritchie (9 papers), Mehmet Altinay, Susanne Becken and Hany Kim (4 papers). Henderson comes from Nanyang Technological University and had publications in the early years (from 1999 to 2004). Liu is from the University of Florida. Most of her publications were related to bed bugs and were rather recent (from 2015 to 2016).

Location was studied for the first authors of the papers. The first authors tend to be most interested in the study topics relating to crisis management and may have secured fair level of research experience in this area. Europe (157 papers, 30.7%) had the greatest number of interested scholars who appeared as the first authors. This figure was followed by Asia (132 papers, 25.8%) and Oceania (110 papers, 21.5%). In Europe, the United Kingdom (59 papers) had the most interested scholars in this area. The first authors from Asia were mainly from Mainland China (29 papers), Israel, Singapore, Japan and Taiwan. The other first authors were from Australia (101 papers) and United States (88 papers) ( Table 2 is a short version of this list. An extended version is in the Appendix).

Location of first author (N = 512).

In terms of the research context, Asia was the most studied region (152 papers, 29.7%), followed by Global (109 papers, 21.3%), and then Europe (101 papers, 19.7%). Several disasters occurred in Asia, including the Japan earthquakes in 2011, the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) outbreak in 2003 and the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004. Many papers took a global or multiple countries approach (109 papers, 21.3%). First authors also tend to conduct research in his or her place-of-residence or nearby locations ( Table 3 ).

Study location (N = 512).

An increasing trend emerged throughout the 36 years study period, as shown in Fig. 1 . The number of articles in 2020 is listed for reference and some articles could not be presented due to availability issues. All papers, whether from tourism-focused journals, hospitality journals or journals in the other fields, generally displayed an upward trend ( Fig. 2 ). Almost all top ten English-language academic journals in the tourism and hospitality field witnessed an increasing trend, except for the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing which experienced a downward trend ( Fig. 3 ). The three periods were identified in the X-axis and spans 36 years. The first period from 1985 to 1996 reflects the start of the discussion about crisis management. Only six papers were published for 12 years. The second period of 1997–2008 involved 115 papers. During this period, most of the papers were published in the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing and in Tourism Management. The last period of 2009 to present involved 389 papers. Most of the papers were published in Tourism Management. At this period, as many as 63 papers were published in Tourism Management. The number of papers published in Tourism Management is almost the sum of the numbers of the first runner up, and second runner up. ( Table 1 ).

Studies related to crisis management in the tourism and hospitality literature (1985–2020).

Numbers of tourism and hospitality publications in English on crisis management.

Top Ten Journals on crisis management.

3.2. Types of crises in the hospitality and tourism industry

The 512 papers revealed that five business sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry, an outcome which mirrored the findings of Wut et al. (2021) who performed a systematic review on corporate social responsibility research in the hospitality and tourism industry. The most commonly investigated industry sectors comprised tour operators/travel agencies, hotel operators, airlines, restaurants and ocean cruising sectors. Their crises types are summarised below for illustration purposes ( Table 4 ):

Typology of crisis types in hospitality and tourism industry (Source: authors).

Crisis types were previously organised under the three categories of natural disasters, technical error accidents and human error accidents, depending on the level of organisational responsibility. Limited organisational responsibility is clearly involved for natural disasters because those events are usually beyond operational control ( Coombs, 2019 ). Only reactive strategies can be developed to minimise loss. A low level of organisational responsibility occurs on technical error accidents as the organisation can hardly do much about technical errors. However, organisations should bear the main responsibility for preventable crises as they involve human errors ( Coombs, 2019 ). Natural disasters are the most common type, and the other two are mainly related to complaints on social media.

3.3. Methodological design of previous research

Almost half of the studies adopted quantitative research methods (215 studies, 42%). Approximately 34% of the papers relied on qualitative research methods (174 studies). Only 24 studies (4.7%) integrated both qualitative and quantitative research methods. And there also appeared 99 conceptual papers. In terms of research design, exploratory design (qualitative) dominated (159 studies, 31.1%). Most researchers used in-depth interview and focus group in exploratory design. This research design is followed by adopting primary data from surveys (139 studies, 27.1%) and using secondary data and databases (74 studies, 14.5%). For the statistical and analytical methods of research, the main method was identified for each paper. Most qualitative studies relied on case studies (85 studies, 16.6%) and content analysis (81 studies, 15.8%). Descriptive analysis (54 studies, 10.5%) and regression analysis (40 studies, 7.8%) were primarily used in the quantitative studies. When appeared more than one method of analysis was utilised (for example, both descriptive and regression analysis), only the most complex method was counted (in this case, regression analysis) ( Table 5 ).

Analysis by research methodology (N = 512).

3.4. Traditional Research focus

The research themes in the literature were organised in such manner: Papers with a specific topic of crisis management, risk management or disaster management were grouped under the category carrying the name of the focal topic, such as crisis impact, crisis recovery and risk perception. Papers on crisis management in general ( Beirman, 2001 ) or focusing on crisis management in relation to other topics, for example, brand management ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ), or those on more than one topic of crisis management such as crisis preparedness and organisational learning ( Anderson, 2006 ) were all included under a category named “Crisis management/with multiple topics”. Similar logic was applied to the “Risk management/with multiple topics” category, which included papers embracing risk management in general ( Angel et al., 2018 ) or multiple topics regarding risk identification, the influential factors and related risk management practices ( Chen, 2013 ). This logic was further applied to the “Disaster management/with multiple topics” category. Another category refers to COVID-19, which has been a hot topic since last year. All the COVID-19 papers that concerned about crisis and/or crisis management were put under this separate category. Such arrangement could help summarise the focuses and trends of COVID-19 research and facilitate the researchers who may have continuing interests to explore further in future years. Lastly, the remaining papers hardly put into previous categories were put under the category of others. As a result of adopting the above rationale in papers classification, among the reviewed studies, 16% (82 papers) were related to crisis management/with multiple topics and 15.4% (79 papers) related to COVID-19. These two primary categories were found in terms of the number of papers collected ( Table 6 ). Risk management/with multiple topics is the second runner-up with 13.7% (70 papers). Risk perception was found with 44 papers (8.6%). Crisis impacts involved 32 studies (6.3%), and crisis recovery was examined in 31 studies (6.1%). Further, fairly sufficient, 21 papers focused on crisis resilience (4.1%), 18 papers investigated crisis communication (3.5%) and 15 papers examined crisis response (2.9%). Disaster management/with multiple topics was studied by 20 papers (3.9%), and disaster recovery was investigated in 16 papers (3.1%). The areas worthy of significant note have collected even less than 10 papers in the study period, inclusive of crisis preparedness and prevention, learning, risk assessment and communication ( Table 6 ).

Crisis management research focus (N = 512).

The most explored research foci in the study period included crisis management/with multiple topics, risk management/with multiple topics, and disaster management (event). Crisis impact and crisis recovery, as well as risk perception also involved more than 30 papers respectively, that can represent the traditional focus of crisis management research at the theoretical level. The COVID-19 theme has more than 70 papers published (N = 79) in 2020, which surprisingly made it as one of the top ranking research themes in the summary. Its discussion will be presented in the next section involving the emerging research themes over the last decade (2010 to present).

3.4.1. Crisis management/with multiple topics

Crisis management has attracted academic attention for the entire study period. Anticipating crises and responding to them accordingly is crucial ( Henderson, 1999a ). A crisis or disaster management framework based on the model by Fink (1986) was proposed. Six elements of responses were suggested: precursors, mobilisation, action, recovery, reconstruction and re-assessment, and review. Risk assessment and disaster contingency plans were provided ( Faulkner, 2001 ). The crisis management framework of Ritchie (2004) follows the prescriptive model Richardson (1994) applied on the tourism industry: pre-crisis; crisis event and post crisis. This ‘one size fits all’ approach might cater to all sudden events ( Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

By contrast, chaos theory assumes a random, complex and dynamic situation. That theory was used to explain the Mexican H1N1 crisis. Companies in the tourism industry operate in a relatively stable situation but are subject to unexpected attacks. The trigger case in Mexico is an outbreak of the H1N1 disease ( Coles, 2004 ; Speakman & Sharpley, 2012 ).

Co-management's characteristics ‘have been identified in the literature: (1) pluralism, (2) communication/negotiation, (3) transactive decision-making, (4) social learning, and (5) shared action/commitment’ ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a , 3). That management refers to combining resources from various stakeholders in the community for crisis management ( Pennington-Gray et al., 2014a ).

Researchers neglected crisis preparation and organisational learning in the tourism industry ( Clements, 1998 ; Cheung & Law, 2006 ; Anderson, 2006 ). In practice, large companies do have crisis management plans, unlike small business and tourism operators ( Cushnahan, 2004 ; Gruman et al., 2011 ).

3.4.2. Crisis impact

The Asian financial crisis and global economic crisis of 2008/09 affected the tourism industry ( Boukas & Ziakas, 2013 ; Henderson, 1999c ; Jones et al., 2011 ). In these events, people generally lost their spending power. If a host country suffers from a domestic crisis, then it usually attracts more visitors from other countries because of devaluation of the host country's currency ( Khalid et al., 2020 ). The lower demand for local tourism is counter-balanced by the arrival of more international tourists.

Usually, crisis impact could be measured by the drop of the number of inbound or outbound tourists and the spending of visitors ( Jin et al., 2019 ; Khalid et al., 2020 ; Wang, 2009 ). In turn, the impact would be reflected by economic indicators, such as the unemployment rate of the tourism industry ( Blake & Sinclair, 2003 ). People must also be convinced that everything is back to normal before they travel again.

The studies concentrated on sales loss and the drop in customers ( Jones et al., 2011 ; Liu, 2014 ). Financial ratio analysis is more objective but usually cannot capture instant impacts. Few investigations employed stock price to measure the effect of crises. Abnormal returns were a good indicator of the future earnings of a listed company ( Seo et al., 2014 ). Another dimension is the emotional aspect. Anger and outrage are emotional responses from customers. These reactions produce intangible effect on corporations ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

Aside from the economic impact, environmental and social cultural impacts must also be considered. For instance, the natural environment is vulnerable to disaster risks. Pollution problems could also affect the image of a city such as Beijing ( Tsai et al., 2016 ). From a social cultural perspective, local culture should be protected and revived.

3.4.3. Crisis recovery

The process wherein tourism operators' attempt to return to normal business and achieves good economic performance after a crisis is called crisis recovery ( Coombs, 2019 ). Various crisis recovery approaches were proposed. Restoration of confidence, media role, other stakeholder support and speed of the response are critical success factors for crisis recovery ( de Sausmarez, 2007a ). Analysis of the crisis, audience and place must be conducted before formulating a media strategy. The message source, target audience and the message itself are essential features for designing the media strategy in attempt to repair the image of the place ( Avraham & Ketter, 2017 ). In summary, image recovery is vital ( Ryu et al., 2013 ).

Other than media strategy, turnaround strategies usually entail increasing income and decreasing cost ( Campiranon & Scott, 2014 ). Price discount appears to be a common recovery strategy applied in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Kim et al., 2019 ; Okuyama, 2018 ).

A marketing program is a usual tactic in crisis recovery ( Carlsen & Hughes, 2008 ; Chacko & Marcell, 2008 ; Ladkin et al., 2008 ). Celebrity endorsement was also one of the best ways for implementing recovery marketing plans. Marketing campaigns should be continued after a crisis ( Walters & Mair, 2012 ). Some researchers expressed reservations about marketing programs. They instead prefer a demarketing approach if the place was seriously damaged and remains unsafe for visitors ( Orchiston & Higham, 2016 ).

3.4.4. Risk management/with multiple topics

Risk management is important for business operations ( Bharwani & Mathews, 2012 ). However, different companies may present different levels of risk appetite in terms of their willingness to manage risks ( Zhang, Paraskevas, & Altinay, 2019 ). The main types of business risks include operating risks, strategic risks and financial risks ( Harland et al., 2003 ). Financial risks can be categorised as systematic (common to whole economy) and unsystematic risks (firm-specific) ( Chen, 2013 ). According to Oroian and Gheres (2012) , all internal risks (e.g. organisational risks) and external risks (e.g. nature, competitiveness, economic, political and infrastructure risks) should be considered. Chang et al. (2019) found that financial risks, competing risks and supply chain risks may be classified as high priority by the travel industry.

Given the nature of the industry, hospitality and tourism companies may possibly face more particular environmental risks ( Böhm & Pfister, 2011 ; Cunliffe, 2004 ; Hillman, 2019 ), such as the weather conditions and climate change ( Ballotta et al., 2020 ; Bentley et al., 2010 ; Córdoba Azcárate, 2019 ; de Urioste-Stone, 2016 ; Hopkins & Maclean, 2014 ; Steiger et al., 2019 ; Tang & Jang, 2011 ), which will result in financial risks ( Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019b ) and other types of business risks for companies.

Regarding risk management and practices, various risk mitigation and reduction strategies have been studied. Loehr (2020) proposed a Tourism Adaptation System for this purpose. Portfolio analysis was adopted for risk reduction and management in the industry ( Minato & Morimoto, 2011 ; Tan et al., 2017 ). The scenario planning approach was also employed by Orchiston (2012) for risk forecasting. Safety and security measures, through security checkpoints, security systems and procedures, are of vital importance in operational strategies ( Daniels et al., 2013 ; Peter et al., 2014 ). However, Rantala and Valkonen (2011) argued that safety issues in the hospitality and tourism industry are complex because of the infrastructure and technology, lack of experiences for customers and employees, and the safety culture in the industry. Vij (2019) examined the views of senior managers in the hospitality industry and highlighted the urgent safety need regarding cyberspace and data privacy. Stakeholder collaboration might be also considered for sharing the responsibility in risk management ( Gstaettner et al., 2019 ). As for the aspect of risk transfer, insurance contracts ( Dayour et al., 2020 ; Franzoni & Pelizzari, 2019a ) is a traditional focus for mitigating the negative impacts through transferring the risks to third parties. Nevertheless, that approach was not a common practice in the industry ( Waikar et al., 2016 ).

3.4.5. Risk perception

This work found that many risk perception-focused studies were conducted in the tourism context. Mass tourists are generally risk adverse in unfamiliar surroundings. The risks related to health, crime, accident, environment and disasters greatly affect the tourists' decision-making ( Carballo et al., 2017 ; George, 2010 ; Hunter-Jones, 2008 ). Some studies categorised those risks into physical, financial, psychological and health risks ( Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ). According to Carballo et al. (2017) , some risks for tourists can be controllable (e.g. illness and sunburn), whereas others are not.

The causes leading to the risk perceptions of tourists included demographic (e.g. age and nationality) and individual trip-related characteristics (e.g. visit purpose and frequency of travel) ( George, 2010 ; Jalilvand & Samiei, 2012 ), past experiences ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), marketing communications ( Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ), media effects ( Kapuściński & Richards, 2016 ; Rashid & Robinson, 2010 ), mega-events, such as the FIFA World Cup) ( Lepp & Gibson, 2011 ) or Olympic Games ( Schroeder, Pennington-Gray, Donohoe, & Kiousis, 2013 ), as well as the destination risk management measures ( Toohey et al., 2003 ). Different directions of research or research findings were noted. Rashid and Robinson (2010) believed that the media effects exaggerated the risk perceptions. Kapuściński and Richards (2016) found that the media could either amplify or attenuate risk perceptions. George (2010) and Jalilvand and Samiei (2012) tended to compare the tourists' gender, age and trip-related characteristics for risk perception, but the latter study found more obvious difference among the groups.

Risk perceptions were also found to negatively impact various constructs. However, the dependent variables were overwhelmingly concentrated on destination image ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; Lepp et al., 2011 ; Liu-Lastres et al., 2020 ; Sohn & Yoon, 2016 ) and revisit intention ( Chew & Jahari, 2014 ; George, 2010 ; Zhang, Xie, et al., 2020 ). Other outcomes of risk perception, such as tourist hesitation ( Wong & Yeh, 2009 ), destination attitude ( Zhang, Hou, & Li, 2020 ), satisfaction and trust ( Wu et al., 2019 ), emotion ( Yüksel & Yüksel, 2007 ), recommendation to others ( George, 2010 ), decision-making process ( Taher et al., 2015 ) and travel behaviour modification ( Thapa et al., 2013 ), were also investigated.

Note that tourists may be motivated by risk-taking behaviours ( Cater, 2006 ; Chang, 2009 ). These tourists possibly favour novelty and adventurous tourism activities. Examples of risk-taking contexts in the hospitality and tourism industry include gaming ( Chang, 2009 ), mountain climbing ( George, 2010 ; Probstl-Haider et al., 2016 ) and other adventurous activities ( Cater, 2006 ). Pröbstl-Haider et al. (2016) indicated that the risk-taking behaviour may be attributed to the tourists' experience, participation frequency and commitment, their risk perceptions and the individual trade-off of risks.

3.4.6. Disaster management/disaster event (description)

This study consolidated disaster management and disaster event (description) into one generic category for subsequently summary and discussions. Following previous classical literature on disaster management ( Faulkner, 2001 ; Prideaux et al., 2003 ), disasters can be considered as unpredictable or unprecedented crisis situations with great complexity and gravity. Ritchie (2008) summarised the many natural disasters frequently studied in tourism literature as comprising hurricanes, flooding and tsunami, earthquake, biosecurity and diseases (e.g. foot and mouth disease and SARS). Huan et al. (2004) dubbed these incidents as ‘no-escape’ disasters.

As a result of the disasters, tourist fatalities may occur while the destination and business facilities are severely devastated ( Cohen, 2009 ). Different hospitality and tourism sectors may experience remarkably varied challenges ( Henderson, 2007 ). Previous literature also recorded a comparison across disasters for certain destinations ( Prideaux, 2003 ) or for the investigation of disasters across different destinations ( Bhati et al., 2016 ). Many studies focused on business and destination resilience ( Bhaskara et al., 2020 ; Bhati et al., 2016 ; Filimonau & De Coteau, 2020 ; Ghaderi et al., 2015 ; Lew, 2014 ). Hospitality and tourism business normally react without warning, deal with existing staff, reduce salaries over the short-term and consider rebuilding tourist confidence over the long-term ( Henderson, 2005 ). Filimonau and De Coteau (2020) emphasised that the destinations studied fail to react effectively. Ghaderi et al. (2015) found that the primate enterprises lacked knowledge and analysis of disasters to prepare for the future.

Faulkner (2001) presented a tourism disaster management framework that incorporated six stages: pre-event, prodromal, emergency, intermediate, long-term recovery and resolution. He suggested destination marketing and communications, risk assessment, disaster management teaming and disaster contingency plans as examples of management strategies. This seminal model was applied for different disaster case studies ( Faulkner & Vikulov, 2001 ; Miller & Ritchie, 2003 ). Walters and Clulow (2010) examined previous literature and indicated that disaster-recovery marketing may be ineffective for areas affected by disasters. By contrast, Biran et al. (2014) argued that even disaster attributes can possibly motivate certain future tourists.

4. Discussion on emerging research themes from 2010 to present

In Fig. 1 , the Y-axis showcases the number of publications that studied crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. The X-axis records the years. Obviously, an increasing trend occurred for the relevant publications over the past 36 years. Five distinct peaks were identified in these publication waves: the years 1999, 2008, 2013, 2017 and 2020. Publishing an academic paper usually takes two to three years from the start of an initial idea. In many cases, researchers can only observe impacts and report their findings several years after a crisis event, for example, during the Asian financial crisis in 1997 and the wars in 1990s (including the Gulf War, 1990–91; Croatian War, 1991–95; Bosnian War, 1992–95 and the Afghan War, 1990–2001). Studies published in 1999 mainly involved the financial crisis and the terrorism at that time. However, the papers recorded in 2008 included the impacts of the 9/11 terrorist attack in 2001. Papers in the year 2013 were mostly related to the financial crisis which dated back to 2007 and 2008. Papers with political topics were published in 2017/18. Many COVID-19 papers were published in 2020. Four major themes emerged in the last decade (year 2010-present), namely the health-related crisis, social media, political disturbance and terrorism crises ( Table 7 ).

Research areas for crisis management studies in last decade (Year 2010 to Present).

4.1. Health-related crisis (including COVID-19)

The 2006 Avian Flu, Year, and the 2003 SARS, the 2001 Foot and Mouth disease are notable health-related crisis events that impacted the hospitality and tourism industry ( Baxter & Bowen, 2004 ; Chien & Law, 2003 ; Page et al., 2006 ; Tew et al., 2008 ). Further, 284,00 deaths were recorded in the 2009 Swine flu. Tourism loss was US$2.8 billion ( Rassy & Smith, 2013 ). Recent case of health-related crisis event is the Ebola outbreak in 2014 and 2015. The outbreak affected the Africa tourism industry by 5% revenue reduction in year 2015 ( Novelli et al., 2018 ). Lyme disease was studied from the perspective of tourism management ( Donohoe et al., 2015 ). The impact of Zika outbreak for 2016 in Latin America and the Caribbean caused losses of US$3.5 billion in tourism industry; and no vaccine is available ( World Bank, 2016 ). In the same year, the global outbreak of Dengue fever led to even severe economic impact of US$8.9 billion ( Shepard et al., 2016 ). The recent global outbreak of COVID-19 in 2020 is undeniably a vastly emerging research focus. An overview of health-related events has been presented by Hall et al. (2020) .

Large number of papers in COVID-19 has been published within a short period of time. Most of the papers tended to study the impacts of COVID-19 in hospitality and tourism industry ( Bulin & Tenie, 2020 ; Jaipuria et al., 2020 ; Knight et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ; Seraphin, 2020 ; Uğur & Akbıyık, 2020 ), some of which focused on particularly the hotel industry ( Bajrami et al., 2020 ; Vo-Thanh et al., 2020 ). Besides, some provided directions for recovery ( Yeh, 2020 ). For instance, using a private dining room or table could be one of the solutions in restaurant industry ( Kim & Lee, 2020 ). Resilience is another topic of discussion ( Butler, 2020 ). Rittichainuwat et al. (2020) found that the Thai hospitality, bleisure (business and leisure) and international standard venues are key factors for resilience of the exhibition industry. For tourism industry, travel after pandemic is arguably associated with protection motivation and pandemic travel fear ( Zheng et al., 2021 ).. Research topics could be about perceived risk and tourist decision making ( Matiza, 2020 ). In terms of the research methodologies in this research theme, most of the papers appeared to be conceptual papers ( Baum & Hai, 2020 ; Bausch et al., 2020 ; Haywood, 2020 ; Li et al., 2020 ; Zenker & Kock, 2020 ). A few qualitative studies used in-depth interview ( Awan et al., 2020 ; Loi et al., 2020 ) while some others adopted case studies ( Breier et al., 2021 ; Neuburger & Egger, 2020 ). Quantitatively, some relied on online survey ( Karl et al., 2020 ) or telephone survey ( Pappas & Glyptou, 2021 ) due to pandemic constraints.

Without effective crisis management in this regard, the entire hospitality and tourism industry could hardly recover by rebuilding tourists and guests' confidence who suffer from health-related crises, with no exception of COVID-19. According to Coombs (2019) , there are four stages in crisis management: crisis prevention, crisis preparation, crisis response and crisis recovery. The purpose of crisis prevention is to detect warning signals and to stop any possible negative events. Certain disasters cannot be prevented even for early preparation. Crisis management plan needs to list out every step we need to follow when crisis happens. A team can be organised beforehand to carry out some rehearsals regularly. Immediate, transparent and consistency are the basics in preparing crisis response. In post crisis period, people need to learn from the past, including the mistakes made. Business continuity plan guides us to recover from crisis quickly ( Coombs, 2019 ; Fung et al., 2020 ). These should be the basics of lessons for effective crisis management derived from the different health-related crisis events in history and the COVID-19 outbreak as well. All stakeholders should consolidate their knowledge and experiences to better prepare for the future.

4.2. Social media theme

Over the past decade, companies in the hospitality and tourism industry have greater attention to the use of social media in practice. Social media can distribute news over distances within a short period of time. That media could co-ordinate with different stakeholders in crisis events ( Antony & Jacob, 2019 ; Maia & Mariam, 2018 ). Meanwhile, a wide range of stakeholders (i.e. individual customers, governmental bodies, activist groups, rescue teams, consumers' bodies, mass media and others) can take part in management through social media ( Sigala, 2012 ). Zeng and Gerritsen (2014) summarised the social media research in tourism and highlighted clearly (p.34) that ‘giving its mobility and facility for instant interaction, social media can be expected to play a more important role in tourism destination management, particularly in crisis management … ’ Sigala (2012) further revealed that social media can be utilised throughout the different stages of crisis management involving mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. For example, Schroeder and Pennington-Gray (2015) studied the effect of social media in crisis communications. Travellers may possibly refer to feedback from social media in search of related information when a crisis occurs. Instead of discussing crisis impacts on tourism sectors in Hong Kong, researchers attempted to focus on the crisis communication through social media which affects social media users' subsequent attitude ( Luo & Zhai, 2017 ). Social media can also be used in the revision stage to develop resilience and adaptability. Moreover, social media has employed in fundraising events and in creating emotional support after crisis ( Coombs, 2019 ).

4.3. Political disturbances theme

The past decade witnessed a few examples of political disturbances or social movements ( Monterrubio, 2017 ). In Thailand, Cohen (2010) examined the sources of airport occupation. The occupation was a social movement opposed to the Thailand government. The movement changed the safety destination perception of Thailand and affected the tourism industry in the long term ( Cohen, 2010 ). In Hong Kong, the ‘yellow vest’ movement occurred on November 17, 2008. Protesters decided to continue to protest every Saturday. That situation might generate an unsafe image for incoming tourists ( Derr, 2020 ). A political event called Occupy Central in 2014 and 2015 in Hong Kong also requested for the election of a Chief executive. ‘Central’ is a place in Hong Kong that encompasses many important business and government offices. Another social movement involved Hong Kong's anti-extradition law amendment bill in 2019. These occurrences strongly impact the peaceful image of Hong Kong.

4.4. Terrorism theme

Unquestionably, the hospitality and tourism industry is vulnerable to terrorism. Tourists might possibly switch to other travel destinations because of perceived terrorist threats to their intended destination ( Sönmez et al., 1999 ; Walters et al., 2019 ). Terrorism has become a popular theme of research since 2001, when the terrorist attack of historic significance occurred on 11 September in the U.S. ( Evans & Elphick, 2005 ; O'Connor et al., 2008 ; Taylor, 2006 ; Yu et al., 2005 ). |Another example involves the targeting of Bali tourists by Al Qaeda in 2002 ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

Some terrorism-related studies from past decade focused on the hotel industry. One research indicated that terrorism affects the brand image of a local hotel if an attack from terrorists occurs on the destination. Thus, protecting the brand equity is an effective strategy ( Balakrishnan, 2011 ). Another paper compared the impacts of 9/11 on hotel room demand to those during the financial crisis of 2008 ( Kubickova et al., 2019 ). Stahura et al. (2012) emphasised that crisis management planning is essential when the industry confronts potential crisis from terrorist attacks.

5. Research opportunities

Following a systematic analysis of traditional research focuses over the 36 years and emerging research themes over the last decade, a new conceptual framework was presented in Fig. 4 to highlight the proposed future research directions of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. Further research areas were identified using a TCM (Theory-Context-Method) model ( Paul et al., 2017 ) presented in three layers.

Conceptual framework for future research of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry.

The outer layer related to the crisis management at the theory level. Traditional research foci at the theoretical level appear to include crisis management/with multiple topics, crisis impact, crisis recovery, risk management/with multiple topics and risk perception and disaster management. Unfortunately, little attention has been paid to crisis management education and training, a feature which was rather regarded as the most effective method of crisis management in the long run for the tourism industry ( Henderson, 1999a ). The literature review also entailed relatively less academic attention to crisis prevention and preparedness, risk assessment and risk communication. In the second inner layer, proposed contexts of crisis management research were presented. The health-related crisis events including COVID-19, data privacy, digital media, political-related crisis events as well as other less explored contexts are suggested for the future research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry. It should be noted further that the health-related, data privacy and political-related crisis events are also related to the digital media area. This situation indicates that the transmission of crisis information is rather faster than ever before through digital media, so that management of various crises should be examined in this era of digital media. Meanwhile, the less explored industry sectors and contexts should be studied. The core and the inner layer suggest adopting new analytical research methods for designing various research and analysing related data. The following will detail the proposed future research areas and identify specific research questions for the benefit of future researchers ( Table 8 ).

100 specific future research questions in the ten future areas.

5.1. Theory development

Fink (1986) 's four stage model is influential in crisis management studies. His four-stage model was applied in diseases (1) prodromal, hints of potential crisis; (2) breakout; (3) chronic, the effect of crisis persists; (4) resolution, some clear signals the crisis is no longer a concern ( Fink, 1986 ). The other influential model is from Mitroff (1994) . His five stages model turns Fink's descriptive model to prescriptive approach. Crisis management efforts was divided into five phases: signal detection, prevention, damage containment, recovery and organisational learning ( Mitroff, 1994 ). Faulkner (2001) made a good comparison of the models. In fact, previous research have also indicated the cycling loop of crisis management ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ). For instance, Pursiainen (2018) explicitly explained the crisis management circle with some suggested procedural steps (prevention, preparedness, response, recovery, learning, risk assessment). This further provides the solid theoretical foundation for Fig. 4 that the proposed future research areas at theoretical level stay at different cycling stages in crisis management: from crisis prevention and preparedness to risk communication to crisis management education & training, and then to risk assessment, which has been also considered to pave the way for the next round of crisis prevention and preparedness.

5.1.1. Crisis prevention and preparedness

Papers on crisis preparedness (9 papers) and crisis prevention (7 papers) are notable fewer. In fact, preventing the crisis from happening is the best crisis management strategy. Crisis preparedness takes up most of a crisis manager's time ( Coombs, 2019 ; Pforr & Hosie, 2008 ). The recovery and experiences of crisis handling of one time can be translated into the crisis preparedness and precaution measures for the potential next time. The awareness and recognition of possible crises by managers and staff can be strategically important throughout the learning process and crisis management cycle ( Xu & Grunewald, 2009 ).

5.1.2. Risk communication

Compared to the risk management (68 papers) and risk perception (41 papers) categories, prior literature records only one paper ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ) which focused on ‘risk communications.’ Risk communication is indeed important in the hospitality and tourism industry. An uncertainty always exists because of the weather or some other uncontrollable factors. Risk communication is important when they promote tourism products to prospective customers ( Heimtun & Lovelock, 2017 ). It also relates to legal issues. For example, travel companies and tour organisers should explicitly explain to potential tourists the types of risks involved and tourists (risk bearers) could also express their concerns and fears about the risks in the process of their decision making. The outcomes of risk communication are expected to enhance customers' risk awareness and help them take personal proactive actions. The appropriate overestimation of risk can be also effective for helping consumers make decisions while avoiding possible legal risks ( Coombs & Holladay, 2010 ).

5.1.3. Crisis management education and training

Special attention should also be given to crisis management education and training in hospitality and tourism-related programmes. In the ever-increasingly diversified and changing market, hospitality and tourism companies have an urgent need of specialists and professionals in crisis management for their sustainable and healthy business development. Graduates equipped with relevant knowledge and working experiences will be highly needed by the industry. The presence of an experienced leader and crisis team consisting of qualified staff can be strategically significant in the different stages of crisis management in the tourism industry ( Ritchie, 2004 ). Surprisingly, scare research exists in this regard.

In this study, the US, Australia and the UK were well represented in terms of the leading authors of crisis management studies in the hospitality and tourism industry. Academic platforms may favour more interested researchers in this area who originate from other places. The cross-cultural approach is also strongly recommended for systematic comparisons of the findings generated from different cultural backgrounds. Future research could be extended to more developing countries, such as China and Vietnam, to compare their crisis prevention measures.

5.1.4. Risk assessment

Less than 10 papers focused on risk assessment, a figure which could suggest a future research direction. Undeniably, hospitality and tourism companies may be interested in identifying the possible risks according to their frequency, scale and level of loss, and assess their influences for developing effective risk management strategies ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ). Roe et al. (2014) summarised many methodological approaches that are currently adopted to assess and manage the various risks, particularly environmental ones. They exemplified with the Environmental Impact Assessment, Environmental Audit and Ecological Footprint with support of Delphi Technique. In fact, tourists can also learn from the risk assessment results to manage their holiday travel plans and decide insurance purchase ( Olya & Alipour, 2015 ). However, as each assessment methodology has its own merits as well as limitations, methodological innovations and comprehensive assessment models are expected for future research, particularly in the hospitality and tourism context owing to the lack of research output in this regard ( Tsai & Chen, 2010 ).

5.2. Context

5.2.1. covid-19 (coronavirus disease 2019).

COVID-19 has threatened the lives and health of people globally and seriously disrupts the traffic flow of people worldwide. Hotels, travel agencies, airlines and all sorts of related industries face a serious challenge in 2020 ( Gössling et al., 2020 ; Qiu et al., 2020a , b ). In fact, the world may see a co-occurrence of various health risks and diseases in future. With lessons derived from COVID-19, health-related crisis management could be a universal issue.

The COVID-19 pandemic may not be over in year 2021 although different vaccines are available. Tourism and hospitality industry will still be seriously affected. Firstly, the impacts on the industry have already been estimated for the year 2020.70% of hotel employees have been laid off and 4.6 million supporting jobs was lost in United States ( American Hospitality and Lodging Association, 2020 ). The forecasted impacts for the year 2021 are still in progress and not yet available. Secondly, there could be new models for people travelling for leisure or business after the pandemic. Thirdly, new business model may evolve for the hotel, airlines, catering, or even the sharing business ( Farmaki et al., 2020 ).

5.2.2. Data privacy in hospitality and tourism

Today, most organisations are using information technology as a main or supplementary tool for their business operations and management. Extensive organisational/customer sensitive information is stored and/or processed in digital format, particularly when using social media for communications. Loss of confidential information would be disastrous for a company. Note that any inappropriate processing of such sensitive and personal information may cause great damage to organisational reputation with the expected decline of customer trust and loyalty ( Watson & Rodrigues, 2018 ). This fact was highlighted with no exception in the hospitality and tourism industry ( Chen & Jai, 2019 ). Unfortunately, very few papers have addressed this issue. Chen and Jai (2019) explored a research agenda to examine the relationship between data breach or privacy issues and customer relationship building and loyalty. They also suggested checking the different levels of privacy concerns by customers and their impacts.

5.2.3. Political-related crisis events

Many political-related crisis events also have impacts on hospitality and tourism industry. For example, in a historical sense, the US-Iran conflict has long influences over the development of Iran's tourism industry ( Estrada et al., 2020 ; Khodadadi, 2018 ). Recently, the Hong Kong extradition bill controversy (2019–2020) also shook Hong Kong's society and the tourism industry in particular ( Lee, 2020 ). More researchers are expected to express interest on these cases to discuss different research questions. These cases are related to risk and crisis management for destination marketers and various stakeholders. However, the natures of these circumstances vary, a situation which could possibly generate dissimilar research findings and shed light in the crisis management field. Future researchers could investigate the effects of crisis types on crisis management with case studies of new crisis events ( Coombs, 2019 ).

5.2.4. Digital media theme

Digital media plays a major role in future. People may like to use social media more often to express and share their views. However, a crisis may occur for the companies that fail to adequately manage the social communications of their products and brands. For example, customers may complain on social media. How the complaint is transmitted through the Internet and the responses from the organisation are rather practical topics for researchers. Ryschka et al. (2016) is one of the few to explore how a company's response to a crisis raised on social media affects its reputation. Their results showed that the speed of response is important as well as the brand familiarity and cultural values. Unfortunately, their research context (cruise industry) has its special nature and may not be applicable to other industry sectors or businesses at large. Sigala (2012) indicated that future studies could analyse role of social media in crisis communications and its impacts on organisation image. The factors that contribute to the motivations and barriers of using social media by companies can also be studied accordingly ( Sigala, 2012 ). Luo and Zhai (2017) highlighted the need for further research about cyber nationalism and bilateral relationships concerning the tourism boycott and destination crisis.

5.2.5. Other less explored contexts

Most of the reviewed crisis management studies focused on hotels as a sector of the hospitality and tourism industry. Studies should be more diversified across other sectors of the industry. Certain hospitality and tourism industry sectors are under-explored, including airlines, travel agencies, restaurants, the conference sector, ocean cruising, theme parks and wellness spas. For instance, any destination and tourism crisis may affect tour operators and travel agencies which play an important role in tourism flows ( Cavlek, 2002 ). Emphasis on tour operators is suggested for their strategic importance towards destination recovery in the post-crisis period ( Cavlek, 2002 ). The airline industry is also very sensitive to economic downturns and global crises ( Hatty & Hollmeier, 2003 ). Accordingly, the companies involved in that industry may be unable to adjust immediately when facing declining demands in the market. Sangpikul and Kim (2009) identified different factors of barriers affecting the convention and meeting industry. For example, they revealed political unrest as the source of crisis for the MICE (Meeting, Incentive, Conventions and Exhibitions) industry. However, few studies have investigated this sector.

Previous crisis management research relied on traditional methodologies including case studies, content analysis, descriptive analysis and regression analysis ( Table 5 ). Researchers could consider analysing images and/or pictures of the crisis event. Case study in crisis research usually involves with very small sample size. Two diseases cases (SARS and H1N1) were covered in a crisis management study ( Fung et al., 2020 ). Generalization of a case study usually is a difficult task for researcher. Thus, case study sometimes was conducted by way of an exploratory study; or simply used to test a pre-established theory. Besides, case study would also be used to demonstrate a good crisis management practice and propose a relationship or association among variables ( Eisenbhardt, 1989 ). As a whole, case study is a perfect choice to explain and answer the questions on “how” and “why”.

Researchers can consider qualitative comparative analysis. In literature, less than one percentage of crisis management articles used qualitative comparative analysis (see Table 5 ). Most of the focal researches examined relationships among variables in a linear manner using regression analysis and ignored the complexities that might possibly exist across the variables. Even in the case of low level of multi-collinearity, one variable might depend on the other explanatory variable ( Woodside, 2013 ). Often, the impacts on tourism due to crisis might not work in a linear relationship. The qualitative comparative analysis can be a suitable analysis method ( Papatheodorou & Pappas, 2017 ).

5.9 percent or thirty of crisis management papers adopted structural equation modelling as their main analysis method ( Table 5 ). Partial Least Squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) has not been used extensively in particular hospitality and tourism research but rather preferred in marketing and management studies in general ( Ali et al., 2018 ). Conceptually, PLS has some advantages including smaller sample size and less restricted data normality requirement. For example, with 5% significant level, minimum R-square 10% and number of arrows pointing at a construct is five, 150 samples is sufficient ( Hair et al., 2019 ). This fits the current research situation under pandemic concerns that achieving big sample size may not be an easy task. Moreover, models in risk perception sometimes evolve more than one dependent variable and some other mediating or moderating variables, such as perceived security, perceived risk, destination image or willingness to visit ( Zenker et al., 2019 ). Complex predicting model could be handled by PLS easily.

Conjoint analysis is sometimes used in hospitality research. For example, it could explain how tourists choose a particular hotel. It depends on a lot of considerations at the same time. Costs, time, word-of-mouth, activities, past experience and so on are possible reasons ( Suess & Mody, 2017 ). Only a subset of combinations needs to be tested in the field in order to get the answer. In crisis management research, crisis response can be one of the possible topics using this method. For example, one has to take into account different factors before formally making an apology for a customer complaint. Possible factors can include seriousness of crisis, crisis history, and responsibility of company ( Coombs, 2019 ).

6.1. Specific future research questions

Based on the above analysis, ten key future areas were identified. This study took a step further to prepare a total of 100 specific research questions ( Table 8 ) that warrant greater attention in the future. Research findings in these areas were also reported (first column of Table 8 ). Future researchers of crisis management in hospitality and tourism industry can take the specific questions as a direct reference to prepare their projects. Among these specific questions, some questions were reported as unanswered in the existing literature in these areas (second column of Table 8 ), thus being worthy of future research. Other specific questions (last column of Table 8 ) were generated from analyses in this study, after a critical review of literature.

7. Conclusions

This study systematically reviewed crisis management literature in the hospitality and tourism industry from 1985 to 2020, spanning 36 years; and found that only few articles were produced during earlier period. A sharp increase of related research interests emerged thereafter. This work analysed various major academic journals and presented the trends of their collection of crisis management studies; and discussed the study locations and authorship. Moreover, a systematic summary of the crisis types and the different industry sectors within the hospitality and tourism industry can be found this study.

Under the area of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism industry, traditional research foci were found to comprise crisis management and risk management/with multiple topics, disaster management, crisis impacts and recovery, and risk perception. This study summarised further that the main emerging themes over the last decade have revolved around health-related crisis including COVID-19, social media crisis, political disturbance crisis and terrorism crisis. The research cases and environments covered different industry sectors.

Crisis management research will likely be conducted continually with scholarly passion in the near future. A three-layer TCM (theory-context-method) framework for further research of crisis management in the hospitality and tourism is proposed. Ten directions are suggested for future research agenda: 1) crisis prevention and preparedness, 2) risk communication, 3) crisis management education and training, 4) risk assessment, 5) COVID-19 and other health-related crisis events, 6) data privacy in hospitality and tourism, 7) political-related crisis events, 8) digital media theme, 9) other less explored research contexts, and 10) adopting newer analytical methods and approaches. A summary of important works up to date and the suggested 100 specific research questions were also presented for future research purpose.

This study has its natural limitations, the papers collected were published within a specific time period (1985–2020). Using more keywords in literature search can found more papers in this field. Exploring this topic further at different academic platforms, particularly for those in languages other than English, can for sure generated more search results. Investigation of crisis management with a regional focus is also suggested for analysing the research outputs recorded in the local and regional languages.

Author statement

Wut, T. M.: Conceptualization; Data curation; formal analysis; funding acquisition; investigation; Methodology; original draft, Xu, B.: Funding acquisition; review and editing, Wong, S.: Project Administration; resources; supervision.

Declaration of competing interest

We declare that there is no potential conflict of interest

Biographies

Wut, Tai Ming; Dr Wut is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, where he teaches courses in risk management, crisis management and corporate social responsibility. His interdisciplinary research interests cover engineering management, corporate social responsibility and engineers' role in society. He has published papers in international journals such as International Journal of Consumer Studies and Young Consumers. He has also presented his papers in international academic conferences.

Xu, Bill; Dr Bill Xu is a senior lecturer in the School of Professional Education and Executive Development, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University. With respect to research, he has published academic articles and book reviews in international journals like the Journal of China Tourism Research, the Asian Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Tourism Management, etc. He also presented papers in international academic conferences. His teaching and research interests include consumer behaviour and consumption experience (in tourism and hospitality management), tourism psychology and sociology, tour operations and wholesaling, China tourism and hotel businesses, hospitality management in China, and quality service management.

Wong, Helen Shun-mun; Dr Helen Wong obtained her Bachelor of Arts (First Class Hons) from The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Master of Science from the University of London, and Doctor of Business Administration from the University of South Australia. She is also a fellow member of ACCA, an associate member of HKICPA, and CGA. Dr Wong has a diversified business background and several years' accounting and finance experience in Hong Kong and Canada. Prior to joining HKCC, she had worked for various well-known organisations, such as PricewaterhouseCoopers, Hong Kong Stock Exchange, and the University of Toronto.

Appendix B Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104307 .

Appendix A. 

Location of first author (N = 512) (Extended version of Table 1 )

(Source: authors)

Impact statement

Crises events and crisis management often become research topics for hospitality and tourism researchers. However, review papers in this field are lacking. An updated systematic literature review of crisis management research in hospitality and tourism industry is highly needed for the time being, to show what has progressed in recent decades and what would possibly progress in the near future. Under the outbreak of COVID-19, more hospitality and tourism researchers are expected to develop their research interests in crisis management field in the near future. Our paper fills in the research gap to summarise and discuss the traditionally dominated crisis management research themes and the emerging themes over the last decade from 2010. Meanwhile, it also sheds lights in providing clear and detailed advice to future researchers through eliciting what kind of crisis management research areas and specific research questions can be considered.

Appendix B. Supplementary data

The following is the Supplementary data to this article:

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Marketing Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts and Cases 1st ed. 2021 Edition, Kindle Edition

This textbook explores the fundamental principles of marketing applied to tourism and hospitality businesses, placing special emphasis on SMEs in the international tourism industry. It includes examples from a wide range of destinations, from emerging markets to high-income countries. Taking a comprehensive approach, the book covers the whole spectrum of tourism and hospitality marketing including destination marketing, marketing research, consumer behaviour, and digital and social media marketing. Practical in focus, it gives students the tools, techniques, and underlying theory required to design and implement successful tourism marketing plans.

Chapters contain in-depth case studies, including companies like Marine Dynamics Shark Tours (South Africa), Reality Tours & Travel (Mumbai, India), and Makeover Tours (Turkey). Thematic case studies include ‘Halal Tourism in Southeast Asia’, and ‘Marketing and Branding Rwanda’. These illustrate key concepts and theory, with definitions, key summaries, and discussion questions providing further insights. This textbook is ideal for undergraduate and postgraduate students looking for a comprehensive text with a practical orientation. 

• ISBN-13 978-3030641108
• Edition 1st ed. 2021
• Sticky notes On Kindle Scribe
• Publisher Palgrave Macmillan
• Publication date May 8, 2021
• Language English
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From the back cover.

Chapters contain in-depth case studies, including companies like Marine Dynamics Shark Tours (South Africa), Reality Tours & Travel (Mumbai, India), and Makeover Tours (Turkey). Thematic case studies include ‘Halal Tourism in Southeast Asia’, and ‘Marketing and Branding Rwanda’. These illustrate key concepts andtheory, with definitions, key summaries, and discussion questions providing further insights. This textbook is ideal for undergraduate and postgraduate students looking for a comprehensive text with a practical orientation.

Richard George is a senior lecturer at ICON College of Technology & Management/Falmouth University in the UK. He was formerly Associate Professor of Marketing at the University of Cape Town (UCT) and Director of the Tourism Research Unit at UCT. His research interests include safety and security issues and consumer behaviour in the travel and tourism industry. He holds a PhD in Marketing from UCT, South Africa.

About the Author

Product details.

• ASIN ‏ : ‎ B094GQSGTP
• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Palgrave Macmillan; 1st ed. 2021 edition (May 8, 2021)
• Publication date ‏ : ‎ May 8, 2021
• Language ‏ : ‎ English
• File size ‏ : ‎ 55873 KB
• Text-to-Speech ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• Screen Reader ‏ : ‎ Supported
• Enhanced typesetting ‏ : ‎ Enabled
• X-Ray ‏ : ‎ Not Enabled
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• Sticky notes ‏ : ‎ On Kindle Scribe
• Print length ‏ : ‎ 423 pages
• #395 in Hospitality, Travel & Tourism (Kindle Store)
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• #1,156 in Market Research Business (Books)

About the author

Richard george.

Richard George Richard holds a PhD in Marketing from the University of Cape Town (UCT). His research interests include safety and security issues in tourism, township tourism, and consumer behaviour in tourism. He is the author of several academic journal papers and books related to these topics, in particular Marketing Tourism and Hospitality: Concepts & Cases (2021) Palgrave Macmillan; Marketing Tourism in South Africa (2019) 6th edition, Oxford University Press Southern Africa and Managing Tourism in South Africa (2015) 2nd edition, Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Over the years he has consulted and carried out research on behalf of numerous tourism organisations in South Africa.

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The tourism and hospitality career progression pathway

International Hospitality Review

ISSN : 2516-8142

Article publication date: 22 July 2022

Issue publication date: 25 March 2024

The aim of this study was to conduct a comprehensive investigation into declining and emerging occupations and job titles and to develop a national career progression pathway for the tourism and hospitality (T&H) sector.

Design/methodology/approach

Anchored on the Social Cognitive Career Theory, this study used face to face in-depth interviews of 33 industry stakeholders: policymakers, trade association, training providers and beneficiaries (T&H).

The finding reveals that only the “watchman” occupation was identified as the declining job while majority of the emerging jobs were more related to information technology and environmental occupations (website designers, digital marketers, data analysts, hygienists, and safety and hazard experts).

Practical implications

The findings provide a valuable signal for the growing number of jobs in security services, hygiene and information technology-oriented occupations, which the Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture including practitioners including HR directors and general managers should respond timely to and to these growing needs in order to remain competitive in the sector.

Originality/value

This is the first study in context that responded to a call by industry players to fill in a practical knowledge gap in examining declining and emerging jobs and job titles in the T&H sector. The study provides vocational insights into mapping the entry level requirements for the jobs allied with occupations in the national technical and vocational educational training qualifications framework of Ghana at the national level.

• Career progression pathway
• Declining occupation
• Emerging occupation
• Social cognitive career theory
• Tourism and hospitality

Preko, A. and Anyigba, H. (2024), "The tourism and hospitality career progression pathway", International Hospitality Review , Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 54-80. https://doi.org/10.1108/IHR-02-2022-0005

Emerald Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2022, Alexander Preko and Hod Anyigba

Published in International Hospitality Review . Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. This article is published under the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY 4.0) licence. Anyone may reproduce, distribute, translate and create derivative works of this article (for both commercial and non-commercial purposes), subject to full attribution to the original publication and authors. The full terms of this licence may be seen at http://creativecommons.org/licences/by/4.0/legalcode

Introduction

A career development path provides employees with an ongoing mechanism to enhance their skills and knowledge that can lead to mastery of their current jobs, promotions and transfers to new or different positions – Society of Human Resource Management ( SHRM, 2017 , p. 12).

Employability and career development in the tourism and hospitality (T&H) industry has become the key focus for researchers and practitioners, particularly for hotels, restaurants, amusement parks, cruises, events, casinos, parks, entertainment and other tourism-related services ( Calinaud, Kokkranikal, & Gebbels, 2021 ). To this end, employers in the hospitality and tourism sector are directing efforts toward recruiting and selecting industry-specific talents and candidates for jobs in the sector to avert underperformance and turnover rates ( Aicher, Buning, & Newland, 2020 ; Calinaud et al. , 2021 ; Cassel, Thulemark, & Duncan, 2018 ). The barriers to career development in the T&H industry and hence their mobility in the industry are evident, and have been in the apparent frame of attention ( Cassel et al. , 2018 ). For example, Cassel et al. (2018) noted that in Sweden, the supply of labour and supply of competence are critical issues facing the sector. Similarly, due to the industry's poor reputation for good jobs, attracting and retaining staff worldwide has always been a challenge ( Barron, Maxwell, Broadbridge, & Ogden, 2007 ; Baum, 2015 ). Mobility in the T&H industry is particularly alarming because the education levels in the sector are low, the entrance barriers are relatively low compared to other industries, renumerations are low, and it is quite easy to change jobs in the sector because most jobs are mostly temporary, and sometimes seasonal ( Hemdi & Nasurdin, 2006 ). These staff mobility problems pose serious challenges to career development and overall growth of the sector. A few studies have attempted to address the mobility, turnover and career pathway problems in the T&H industry. These studies, however, have largely been conducted in advanced economy contexts (see: Cassel et al. , 2018 ; Chang & Tse, 2015 ), with set limitations in terms of methodology, theory and scope. This issue presents an apparent evidence gap and practice–knowledge gap. A different study context, such as a developing country context, presents a rare opportunity to investigate career pathways pertinent to the local T&H industry.

According to TIME's 2021 world's greatest places list, Accra (capital of Ghana) is the Number 1 destination in Africa for tourists ( Oluwole, 2022 ). In spite of this gain, Ghana's T&H industry has faced major challenges of fragmented and uncoordinated career pathway progressions that undermine the development of the sector. This suggests the inability of the T&H sector to comprehensively define the occupations in the industry. For example, Ghanaian graduates who enter the T&H labor market are not perfectly aligned and suited to the requirements of the labor market. The T&H labor market, as it is today, is having growth problems. A resource constrained post-COVID-19 scenario unsurprisingly poses an existential threat – calling for a proper retooling and skill-set enhancement for industry players. Currently, an overview of Ghana's T&H industry indicates that tourism is regarded as the fourth income generating sector after gold, cocoa and oil ( MOTAC, 2019 ). In 2018, the industry contributed US$ 1,947.5 million, which was an increase of 4.9% of Ghana's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) ( MOTAC, 2019 ). A report of the World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2017) estimates that the sector's contribution to Ghana's GDP will increase by 4.2% to US$ 4,522.3 million by 2028. In terms of employment, the industry has offered approximately 692,000 direct and indirect jobs, which represented 5.3% of the total national employments in 2017 ( WTTC, 2017 ). This figure is estimated to grow to 807,000 jobs by 2028 ( WTTC, 2017 ).

to examine existing, declining and emerging occupations in the Ghanaian tourism and hospitality sector;

to examine the entry level requirements for the jobs associated with the occupations in the sector in accordance with the National Technical and Vocational Education and Training Qualification Framework (NTVETQF); and

to develop national career pathways for possible T&H job progressions from lower to higher qualifications.

Indeed, investigations of this nature within the tourism literature are important, given the critical roles (income earner, employment generation, foreign exchange earner and investment attracter) the sector plays in the development of any given economy. It is, therefore, imperative to critically examine the status quo, and offer practical yet crucial solutions to policymakers and practitioners. There is also the need to extend our understanding of the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT).

The study contributes to the growing literature on career development in the T&H in three ways. First, this study is among the first to develop a career map and anticipation structure for the T&H industry to fill an evidence gap. Second, the study contributes to the practice–knowledge gap in the literature by heeding to ILO and researchers' calls to solve the turnover, career mismatch (skills anticipation and mismatch), career progression and job satisfaction problems in the T&H industry ( Cassel et al. , 2018 ; ILO, 2020 ). Third, the novelty of the study is hinged on three theoretical contributions. First, the SCCT is extended and applied to fit career development in the T&H sector. Previously, self-efficacy or individual behavior was a major consideration in personal career development. However, in today's dynamic and competitive labor market, the T&H job environment is largely influenced by the national career paths, which is an extension of the SCCT theory. Second, the study reveals that self-efficacy may be enhanced when individuals are subjected to training in specific career pathways. Lastly, the SCCT has been used extensively at the personal and organizational levels. This study attempts to apply the theory to a national career pathway to fully harness the triadic reciprocity of person, behavior and context.

The study is structured in the following ways. First, we present a review of the existing literature on career progression in T&H. Next, we present the data collection and data analysis and then the main findings, discussion, limitation and future research direction. Finally, we present the conclusions and implications of the study.

Literature review

The social cognitive career theory (scct).

In general, career theories are usually contingent on environmental, economic and social factors. Hitherto career paths and development were structured by organizations, which were fundamentally a linear progression through the career stages ( Arthur & Rousseau, 2001 ). Earlier, employee success was defined by promotions, allowances, increments and job stability. Traditionally, organizational careers have been conceptualized as linear trajectories where employees progress in their careers in a linear hierarchical structure within the organization. This lifespan development model, which contrasts the “boundaryless career” model, discusses steady states and linear careers marked by a common work role for life and upward mobility ( Arthur & Rousseau, 2001 ; Eby, Butts, & Lockwood, 2003 ; Marler, Woodard Barringer, & Milkovich, 2002 ; Miller & Form, 1951 ). Given today's fast-paced and volatile organizational environment, scholars are beginning to put together new career development models and theories that explain the dynamic and changing nature of careers in diverse sectors, including the T&H sector.

There has been considerable vitality evident in career development research in the past 40 years. At its inception, Bandura (1986) paved the way by expanding his research on the Social Learning Theory (SLT) to Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). The SCT posits that employees (for example, individuals in the T&H sector) learn through a social complex environment with a dynamic and reciprocal interaction of the individual, environment and behavior. The theory lays emphasis on social influence and its accompanying internal and external social reinforcements. Previous fundamental and related theories have been refined and reconceptualized, and expanded ( Holland, 1985 ; Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994 ; Super, 1980 ). As a result, several novel theoretical perspectives have been introduced ( Hackett, Lent, & Greenhaus, 1991 ). The SCCT, an extension of the SCT in the context of career development, helps to “(a) bring together conceptually related constructs (e.g. self-concept, self-efficacy), (b) more fully explain outcomes that are common to a number of career theories (e.g. satisfaction, stability), and (c) account for the relations among seemingly diverse constructs (e.g. self-efficacy, interests, abilities, needs)” ( Hackett & Lent, 1992 , p. 443).

The SCT is predominantly hinged on the concept of triadic reciprocity. In this model, (1) observable behavior or responses depicted in the forms of actions; (2) personal attributes and physical attributes; and (3) external environment, all work together as interlocking mechanisms that affect each other bidirectionally ( Bandura, 1986 ). Personal attributes in the SCT are linked with a variety of self-reflective, vicarious, self-regulatory and cognitive processes ( Bandura, 1986 ). Each of these mechanisms are assumed to play a vital role in guiding psychosocial functioning, but goal representations, outcome expectations and self-efficacy beliefs are particularly important in the SCCT. The SCCT of career development focuses heavily on the mechanism of personal agency (i.e. self-efficacy appraisals). Self-efficacy refers to “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances” ( Bandura, 1986 , p. 391). Specifically, self-efficacy percepts are considered to be responsible for a person's emotional reactions, choice of activities, choice of environment, thought patterns, expenditure and career paths. These personal attributes or beliefs are dynamic, not static, and may be context specific. Together, person, behavior and context , affect each other bidirectionally in the SCCT of career development ( Hackett & Lent, 1992 ).

Individuals’ environment exposes them to different activities and career paths from childhood to adolescence. These observed experiences expose them to various organizational tasks. Apart from the exposure from this environment, they are differentially strengthened to pursue certain selected activities in which they may excel, thereby receiving the appropriate reward. In other words, people pick career choices in which they view themselves as most efficacious ( Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994 ). In the context of the T&H industry, career options are selected by people based on their self-efficacy, particularly personal behavior or traits they exhibit, and the environment in which they find themselves. The application of the SCCT in the T&H sector influences our thoughts in three ways:

First, the T&H job environment is largely influenced by the national career paths available to people. This is because people find it easier applying and selecting jobs that are within their competency areas once the national career pathway has predefined roles. The national career pathways consequently influence individual choice. For example, a room attendant who understands the various career paths available to him/her may develop interest and work (through education and training) toward becoming an interior décor designer. Second, outcome expectations – an attribute of self-efficacy, may be enhanced when individuals are subjected to training in specific career pathways. Once individuals are taken through job specific trainings, they develop more realistic expectations concerning the prediction of their next job or promotion. This systematic approach to expectation enhances self-efficacy of employees who, in turn, grow more confident in the respective job roles, which translates into better performance. Third, the SCCT has been used extensively at the personal and organizational levels. This study attempts to apply the theory to a national career pathway to fully harness the triadic reciprocity (person, behavior and context) . The national career pathway presents a unique opportunity to understand how unique individuals reach specific career contexts, considering the belief in one's capabilities to organize and execute a particular course of action required to achieve the desired work outcomes in the T&H sector.

Career progression in tourism and hospitality

The existing literature ( Amissah, Mensah, Mensah, & Gamor, 2020 ; Armoo & Neequaye, 2014 ; DeMicco & Forgia, 2020 ; McGinley & Martinez, 2018 ; Murry et al. , 2017 ; Kim, Chun, & Petrick, 2009 ; Tolkach & Tung, 2019 ; Weber & Ladkin, 2008 ) has indicated the importance of career progression as a catalyst for human development in the T&H industry. Tolkach and Tung (2019) noted that the industry depends on recruitment and employee career progression. This is also considered relevant in human capital development. Usually, workers are optimistic about career progression in their lifetime. Sheu et al. (2010) examine the significant role employees' choice goal plays in the social cognitive career theory context. It was found that choice goal significantly explains self-efficacy and outcome expectations of employees. This finding provides the understanding that people develop goals to pursue academic and career relevant programs that are in-line with their interest, as well as their self-efficacy and outcome expectation. From the organization's point of view, the provision of career progression pathways offers opportunities for employees to have a clear direction and become managers of their own career paths, and motivates them to work hard in achieving higher positions. In addition, clear and concise career pathways may enable employees to choose a path that correlates with their interest and abilities or realign their career path. Using data from the Ghanaian T&H sector, Armoo and Neequaye (2014) found that industry–person congeniality, social benefit factors, opportunity for professional development and job competitiveness were crucial in determining Ghanaian students' choice of career options. This finding referenced that occupational development is a significant factor in explaining choice of career options in the T&H sector. On the other hand, the career literature has indicated some related human resource management elements such as employee competency behavior, employee bonding, citizenship behavior, career decisions and how they affect career progression ( Amissah et al. , 2020 ; Chang & Tse, 2015 ). Yoganathan, Osburg and Bartikowski's (2021) study on employee competency in the tourism sector established that social media competency increases bonding. Competency helps employees to build better and broader connection with others, which enhances bonding in the workplace. This signifies that when bonding exists in an organization, workers are more likely to protect and defend their organizational reputation. In addition, Shehawy (2017) investigated how the tourism education process, tourism employability and job competitiveness using the Egyptian tourism data. The findings showed that there are significant relationships that exist between tourism learning outcome and other indicators (tourism curriculum mapping, design measurements and employability competitiveness). Earlier studies (See: Hall, 2011 ; Voight & Laing, 2010 ) have also identified the importance of fertility and reproductive tourism, which are directly connected to productivity of the labor. The recent study of Elbaz, Mathew, Maher, Onjewu and Shehawy (2021) on motherhood fertility found that motherhood desire has a positive influence on attitude, subjective norm and female tourists' revisit intentions and actual behavior. Again, it is important to note that fertility exerts a negative influence on workforce participation when women have a newborn baby. This has a decreased effect on workforce participation for women who have just become mothers, which has implications for female workers' careers in the T&H sector.

The recent literature defined career progression pathways as a sequence of positions, which might be occupied by workers from the junior to the senior level in any given organization ( Gebbels, 2019 ; Tolkach & Tung, 2019 ). In the context of this research, the career progression pathway is contextualized as a step-by-step development of employees' career stages, from a lower to a higher rank in T&H organizations or between organizations with similar professions or specialization. This study's definition highlights the fact that the concept of career progression in the T&H study context implies employees will remain at the same job position or make a calculated effort to move up the occupational ladder. O'Leary and Deegan (2005) , using data from the career progression of Irish T&H context, found that there is a significant dropout of workers in the T&H sector due to poor remuneration and unfavorable working hours. Similarly, Hakim's (2020) study provided evidence that career development significantly influenced organizational commitment of employees in the tourism sector. The above empirical findings emphasize the importance of career progression in the T&H industry as a catalyst for the sector's development.

Research is still lacking in developing a national career progression pathway for the T&H workforce within the Ghanaian perspective. Hence, it is opportune to conduct a comprehensive career progression pathway assessment, and map occupations and their respective job titles for the Ghanaian T&H sector, which has been neglected in the career progression literature. In all, we present a literature matrix (see: Table 1 ), which demonstrates how extant studies have investigated career progression in different research contexts.

Research methodology

The focus of this study was to gather primary qualitative data from policymakers, T&H trade related associations, training providers and beneficiaries (T&H businesses). Note that the training providers were selected across the entire country while policymakers, trade associations and beneficiaries were selected in Accra, the capital city of Ghana. We used the purposive sampling method to select the participants to answer questions relating to the national framework that regulates T&H jobs including technical and vocational jobs, qualification requirements or guidelines and possible career progression. In all, this study used in-depth interviews of 33 industry stakeholders (interviewees) out of the 35 participants sampled earlier through face-to-face and telephone interviews to collect data that focused on unearthing the T&H occupations (existing, declining and emerging) and job titles, and further developed occupational pathways’ progression taking into consideration all the “eight-levels” of the NTVETQF (See: Figure 1 ). We followed the recommendation of Saunders et al. (2018) to use the strategy gathering rich (quality) and thick (quantitative) data to achieve data saturation and rigor. The sample size of 33 was determined by achieving data saturation, and there was an agreement between the researchers to halt recruiting more interviewees. Table 2 shows the detailed sampled summary of the number of interviewees used for this study and their respective institutions. Purposively, this study interviewed participants from the above institutions on the basis of their deep understanding of the industry.

In this study, the job title is regarded as a rank or position of an employee, while occupation is the task or core function performed by an employee. Following Creswell's (2014) definition, an in-depth interview is a technique designed to elicit information from an interviewee's perspective on a research topic. The key industry players or stakeholders interviewed for this study were categorized into four groups based on the final outcome of the study where a comprehensive career progression pathway was to be mapped in consultation with the industry players. The categories include policymakers (government ministries, departments and agencies), employer and trade associations (members of Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF)), training providers (hotel, tourism and catering training institutes, master craft persons and other relevant training institutions) and beneficiary partners (selected small, medium and large size tourism and hospitality companies/businesses).

In order to explore the research objectives in a consistent manner, the researchers developed a comprehensive interview guide including probing questions based on the three specific objectives proposed by the funding partners of the project, namely existing, declining and emerging jobs; entry qualifications; and possible career pathways development. All the participants responded to Question 1 to 6, and the remaining questions were stakeholder specific (see A ppendix ). First, the researchers presented a draft of the research instruments for this study to the industry players at a workshop where comments and suggestions were provided. Secondly, the revised questions were scrutinized by four tourism and hospitality experts from industry and academia appointed by the funding partners of the project.

Each participant was interviewed in English language by the researchers at an agreed location most convenient (e.g. offices and homes) for the interviewee. The interviews were conducted between October 9 and 16, 2020, using digital recorders, allowing for a word-by-word transcription of each interview that lasted approximately 40–65 minutes. A follow-up was done by phone for clarifications and more information when necessary. The transcriptions were analyzed using the qualitative content analysis to examine patterns in the occupations identified in the industry. We followed the recommendations made in the existing literature ( Mayring, 2000 ; Schreier, 2012 ) to conduct the content analysis for this study. First, we read the transcriptions over and over for content familiarity, keeping in mind the specific objectives of the study. Second, with the help of NVivo 12, we separately employed “in vivo coding”, which allows the researchers to derive codes from the actual words of the interviewees in the data itself. This form of coding is useful when the researcher interacts with the interviewees on particular issues. For example, we were interested in specific jobs and job titles in the Ghanaian T&H sector. Interestingly, the researchers individually coded the data in order to check whether we have obtained the same conclusions after reviewing the same data. This guarantees data validation, credibility, dependability and confirmability, which are considered as strategies for ensuring trustworthiness in qualitative research ( Lazaraton, 2017 ; Shenton, 2004 ). Third, the identified codes were processed into three specific categories such as existing occupation, declining occupation and emerging occupation. Finally, the categories were developed into the three main themes: information technology jobs, environmental jobs and job titles.

This study adhered to the COVID-19 protocols in the data collection stages. The COVID-19 protocols of social distancing of at least two meters apart, use of a face mask, avoidance of handshakes, hand washing and use of hand sanitizers as recommended by the World Health Organization ( WHO, 2020 ) were observed during the entire period of the field research. The sample comprised 23 males (69.7%) and 10 females (30.3%). Averagely, all the interviewees had working experience in the industry of ten years and above. In all, the findings and the proposed national career pathways were validated at a workshop based on the inputs received from key stakeholders such as the employers and employees of the sector.

The findings revealed six subsectors within the Ghanaian T&H sector, proposed as “travel and tour”, “lodging”, “catering”, “events”, “education and training” and “arts and culture”, which were useful in mapping occupations and their respective job titles. Tables 3–8 showed occupations and job titles plotted according to the “eight levels” qualification framework (minimum to maximum levels), which responded specifically to Objective 2 of this study (entry level requirement of occupations associated with the T&H sector). Table 9 presented the national career progression pathways for the sector, which specifically addressed Objective 3. In summary, the key findings of the study revealed that “watchman” ( Table 5 ) was found to be the only declining job in the Ghanaian T&H sector; whereas the emerging jobs were website designers, digital marketers, data analysts, hygienists, and safety and hazard experts, which were labeled in red texts in Tables 3–8 .

I don't think there is anything like that […]

Training provider

[…] not really. What I remember is the new Ghana Tourism Authority law, which I think made a provision that managers should be licensed; even that one has not seen light of the day.

Trade association

At the moment I will say “Yes” and “No”, because we have National Hospitality Act, which helps to set up a hospitality and build the capacity of employees. However, most hospitality companies in Ghana operate as private individuals, and the career progression in the public sector cannot be aligned with what they have.

Policymaker

Declining or emerging occupations and job titles

Correspondingly, the result of the first objective showed the declining and emerging jobs and titles.

I can see one emerging job “hospitality accountants”. Like hospitality accounting, which has not been popularized in our part of the world. Mostly, we use “financial accountants” to support the sector. Our institutions should train more “hospitality accountants” who will be able to manage the sector effectively. […] one of the declining job titles in this country now is “watchman” which literally means keep an eye on something for me. Sophisticated devices like CCTV and security gadgets have taken over their job.

Mostly, the foreign hospitality firms come to work in Ghana with their chefs who are specialized in the international or continental foods. They only employ our local chefs when they are engaging in local foods which serve local consumers and some international tourists. Usually, these occupations “sommelier”, and “executive chef” are not available in our labor market. This is because our higher institutions do not have programs for these specializations. For example, if you examine how people become chefs, most of the chef started like a steward or cleaner or gardener in the industry after completion of secondary schools. Then, they developed later the passion to be cooks and become chefs as they get the opportunity to progress.

Entry level requirements for the jobs and possible pathways in the T&H sector

On our beaches you can find people parading themselves as they help people who are drowning. They have learnt swimming informally and they help people at the beach. Some people called them local informal rescuers.

Beneficiary

We have the reservation agent who deals with ticketing and making travelling arrangement for tourists to travel to their destinations […] tour operator will put the tour package in terms of transportation and other logistics in place. In my organization I employ data analyst , who manages customers' data and other data related issues. It is seen as one of the emerging occupations that the industry cannot avoid if we want to be competitive. We must always analyze our markets' characteristics in order to plan and develop business strategies as well.

We are looking for food, beverage and sanitation officers as well as a Chef. I know they have various ranks of Chefs from executive Chef to the head Chef . Nowadays, you can also have pastry Chef, who specializes in pastry.

Trade Associations

[…] room attendant, cook, security, kitchen porters , waiters and waitresses usually consist of workers in the lower class in the Ghanaian labor market. Some people also see the cashiers as part of the restaurant service and the front officer in the reception. We also have the purchasing officers, store keepers, marketers as well as sales person who markets the tour packages to tourists. We are seeing demand for web designers and digital marketers as the industry strives hard to promote Ghana's T&H to the outside world on the social media and other digital platforms.

[…] if you go to other countries, they have specific courses for people to become bartenders . Bartenders in Ghana don't have any qualification before they begin to practice. They just enter as trainers and later they develop the passion to be bartenders.

Beneficiaries

Discussions of findings

To understand the career pathways’ progression, this research investigated the declining and emerging jobs and job titles and their respective entry level requirements in the T&H sector. Findings revealed that there are clear occupational paths available to all categories of workers in the six subsectors to progress in their choice of occupations. According to the SCCT, self-efficacy outlines the employee's capability to organize and attain the highest career paths. Further, the theory emphasizes that employees will pick a career path for which they view themselves as most efficacious ( Lent et al. , 1994 ). Interestingly, the possible career pathways accommodated diversification or realignment of occupations in the sector. For example, within the arts and culture subsector, woodcarver of Level 3 can diversify or realign an occupation after acquiring some level of training and formal education and become an assistant fashion designer or a sales trainee in Level 4 and progress to Level 6 to become a fashion designer, manager, sales manager or customer relationship manager. This pathway is possible because the individual, through training, develops a self-efficacy trademark such as positive attitudes, abilities and cognitive skills that boosts one's self confidence to make great strides in the job market.

Noticeably, the sector's career pathways’ progression is envisioned on some key emerging occupational areas: safety and security; technology adoption; and hygiene (environmental occupations). The findings on technology strengthens the understanding of how Ghanaian T&H businesses have gradually started deploying the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) within the field of robotics, which is regarded as one of the most exciting and promising applications for individuals and businesses operating within T&H. For example, providing the chatbots’ services that allow a hotel or travel company to provide 24/7 support through online chat or instant messaging services, even when their staff are not available. Analytically, the findings on technology, security, safety and hygiene imply that these findings are in line with UNWTO (2003) initiatives for nations to develop a national policy to safeguard tourists against risk and hygiene related matters such as crime, sexual assault, terrorism, food safety and hygiene. Furthermore, this shows that Ghana, a country ranked as the 115th of 136 tourism destinations in the world, is adhering to and aligning career paths that cover security and hygiene issues addressed in the UNWTO developmental plans for the T&H sector. In addition, the emerging technology supported occupations and job titles also demonstrated the level at which technology-oriented occupations have been responded to in the Ghanaian career pathways progression of the T&H sector. This signifies that the Ghanaian T&H sector is conforming to the best practices in the world T&H space. Furthermore, this study's finding highlighted Ghana's acceptance of various technology adoption measures supported by legislation such as the Electronic Transaction Act (Act 772 of 2008), National Information Technology Agency Act (Act 771 of 2008) and Data Protection Act (Act 843 of 2012) to protect and ensure quality service provision in the sector. This provides evidence of Ghana's preparedness in supporting the innovation technology that will benefit the T&H sector. The T&H sector depends on the Internet as one of the technological ways tourists can access the needed information related to online traveling sites, booking, photo check out, price comparison for vacations and e-transactions. Added to this, Ghana's Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (2017–2024) of the Coordinated Program of Economic and Social Development Policies emphasized the transformation of the T&H sector through investment in innovation technology and job creation for excellent e-service to tourists such as websites, e-check-in and online booking.

The finding on the declining job and job title “watchman” reaffirmed that security related matters have become complex and the roles of “watchman” have been expanded to cater for the safety and security need driven for the sector. Ten years ago, the role of “watchman” in context was to watch over a property or premise at night when the owners or occupants are asleep. Today, the direction of crime has changed, given that there is daylight robbing, kidnapping, property theft, mugging, armed robbery, as well as terrorism acts evidenced in the sector. Previous studies in context have evidenced how tourists feel unsafe at some destination sites ( Boakye, 2010 ; Poku & Boakye, 2019 ; Preko, 2020a , 2020b ). It is also important to note that during the COVID-19 pandemic, security personnel have had an add-on function of checking the temperature of tourists, and ensuring the strict adherence of the COVID-19 protocols on site. This signifies that the security personnel job description has been expanded to include safeguarding the health and safety of tourists at sites. This observation is similar to the findings of Cheung, Takashima, Choi, Yang and Tung (2021) , where they investigated the impact of COVID-19 on psychological needs of tourists using the existence, related and growth theory. Their findings reinforce the importance of safety and security during COVID-19. This provides a signal that advances the understanding on how safety and security personnel and their careers can strategically be defined to manage any given situation in the sector.

Conclusion and implications

In conclusion, the current study revealed one declining job and 12 emerging jobs, mostly in the security, hygiene and information technology-oriented occupations; and developed national career pathways for the sector. Strategically, these results suggest that Ghana is on course in developing career paths that incorporate key components of the tourism and hospitality agenda of the UNTWO advocacy in the areas of safety, security, hygiene and deployment of technologies in the sector. This will position the country to compete effectively with other tourism nations worldwide. It was also found that the possible career paths developed make provision for diversification and realignment of occupations in the sector, which serves as a motivational factor to all employees who aspire to choose occupational paths with high social status, and promising and rewarding careers within the sector. Indeed, the results of this study have extended the national understanding of career progression, which has not been examined earlier in the T&H sector in context. The current study makes significant contributions that fill gaps in the extant tourism career literature. First, this is the first study in context that comprehensively examines declining and emerging jobs and job titles in the T&H sector. Second, the research provides vocational insights in mapping the entry level requirements for the jobs allied with occupations in the NTVETQF of Ghana at the national level. Third, findings from this research differ from earlier career research of Amissah et al. (2020) , who found perceptions toward the careers in the sector unfavorable in terms of the knowledge transfer skills, employee exposure to other career avenues and the offer of good promotion prospects using tourism students' data in context. Fourth, this study extends tourism studies ( Armoo & Neequaye, 2014 ; Kim et al. , 2009 ; Murry et al. , 2017 ; Tolkach & Tung, 2019 ) on career paths within the literature by using first-hand qualitative data from the key industry stakeholders. Fifth, this study has addressed the lack of national career pathways progression in accordance with the NTVETQF based on the six identified subsectors of the T&H sector, which will help to overcome the challenges of upgrading from the lower to higher ranks in the sector.

Practically, this study's findings provide learning opportunities for HR managers and general managers to develop specific HR policies and practices regarding recruitment, education, talent management and career progression management that will boost employee self-efficacy in the sector. It is important for the HR practitioners and managers in the sector to conduct periodic trainings, workshops, conferences, seminars and open fora on career progressions’ awareness matters for the T&H employees in order to increase their knowledge on the subject matter. Again, the T&H sector and its allied institutions should employ both hard and soft media (e.g. newspapers, television programs, brochures, websites etc.) in the dissemination of information about employee career progressions to ensure a continuous increase of knowledge on career pathways’ subjects. At the national level, the entry level for T&H occupations and career mapping for the T&H may now be adopted for use in the T&H industry. The career mapping for the T&H serves as a standardized career progression pathway that may guide T&H practitioners and administrators on job placement and promotion, to solve the practical knowledge gap of career misalignment in the T&H industry. Strategically, T&H businesses should embrace the significant role played by robotics and AI in order to develop the sector by deploying a variety of technologies, including collision detection, Wi-Fi and AI to navigate hotels and provide services. For industry practitioners, one practical implication is the valuable signal for the growing number of jobs in security services, hygiene and information technology-oriented occupations. The Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture, including practitioners, HR directors and general managers, should respond timely to these growing needs in order to remain competitive in the sector. In addition, the findings inform HR managers, other practitioners and business owners about the need to pay attention to the entry level requirements for each occupation and apply them to useful ends accordingly. At a glance, the results reveal that only “watchman” occupation and job title was identified as a declining job. It is important to inform HR managers and general managers that they should always be up-to-date in looking out for jobs that might need training and re-qualification in their respective organizations. This strategy might be treasured in developing new skills needed for the sector. The finding of scarcity of some key professions or skills such as “hospitality accountant”, “sommelier” and “executive chef” in the sector implies that T&H managers and businesses, including HR managers, can make recommendations to the higher learning institutions to prepare these skills for the sector. This will encourage businesses in the T&H sector to begin engaging the services of Ghanaian workers to occupy these key positions in the sector. Again, the findings suggest to HR managers that organizational structure, design, culture and process should simultaneously create work-based learning for Ghanaian employees to acquire the skills that are a scarcity for the sector. Scholars have widely acknowledged that a structured and diversified career path progression offers employees mobility within the sector, which then motivates employees to work hard in achieving higher positions ( Gebbels, 2019 ; Kim et al. , 2009 ; O'Leary & Deegan, 2005 ; Tolkach & Tung, 2019 ). This research supports these viewpoints and further recommends that managers should consider providing working conditions that will boost employee self-efficacy to work harder to migrate from the lower to the higher positions in the industry. Practically, the study identified six subsectors in the T&H industry, namely: “travel and tour”, “lodging”, “catering”, “events”, “education and training” and “arts and culture”. Educational institutions could take a cue from this and develop courses and programs to fill the skills gaps in the sector. The recommendations provided in this study are not country specific but similar geographic settings can adopt some of the suggestions when necessary.

Our study furthermore contributes to the SCCT in three ways: First, the T&H ecosystem is largely influenced by the national career paths available to the people. As such, the SCCT inherently supports a national career path ecosystem that opens up career pathways to individual actors in the T&H sector. This opportunity helps individual actors or employees to organize and accomplish the highest career progression possible in the industry. Secondly, it is envisaged that individual actors in the T&H will work and progress with aplomb when the individual is taken through on-the-job training and education. In other words, the SCCT theory improves our understanding of how individual actors or employees in the T&H sector progress through the ranks on the back of an important outcome expectation of the SCCT – “self-efficacy”. Lastly, the SCCT has been used extensively at the personal and organizational levels. This study is the first to apply the SCCT to a national career pathway to fully harness the triadic reciprocity.

Limitations and area for future studies

In all, the findings of this study cannot be overlooked because, significantly, this is the first study in context that responds timely to the development of a national career progression, although there are some limitations. This research has the inherent limitations of a qualitative study that discourages the results to be generalized due to the lack of randomness in the selection and statistical representation of interviews although the qualitative approach is perhaps one of the best approaches to gathering unique insights from the industry. Further studies should investigate how HR managers, practitioners, employers and other stakeholders in the sector are applying and complying with the national career paths and provide recommendations for updates that will see continuous relevance of the career path document to the sector, as well as furthering investigations into the applications of robotics and AI in the sector. For future study directions, researchers should consider gathering quantitative data from employees of the sector regarding the applicability of the developed career path based on their choice, attitudes and viewpoints that can be gathered through different engagements such as workshops, seminars, conferences and open fora, etc.

National TVET qualifications framework

Compilations of the relevant literature used for this study

Number of interviewees sampled

Entry level requirement for lodging related occupations

Entry level requirement for the catering related occupations

Entry level requirement for events related occupations

Entry level requirement for education and training related occupations

Entry level requirement for arts and culture related occupations

Tourism and hospitality career pathway map

Appendix Research instruments

What is the specific regulatory document that defined career progression in the tourism and hospitality sector?

Is it a regulatory framework for only tourism or hospitality or for both tourism and hospitality?

Does the regulatory framework identify and describe all existing jobs including job titles, duration, entry requirements in the sector?

Does the regulatory framework define the opportunities for possible progression from the lower to higher qualifications with the respective jobs?

Are these occupations in the sector documented with their titles and job descriptions?

Are there any emerging or declining jobs in the tourism sector that should be titled and defined for the industry?

Are there any emerging or declining jobs in the hospitality sector that should be titled and defined for the industry?

Does the career path map the possible pathways for progression from lower to higher qualifications and respective jobs?

What is the minimum entry requirement for jobs in the tourism and hospitality sector?

What are the possible career paths for Proficiency I holders to obtain a bachelor degree in the sector?

What are some of the professions identified in the sector that are aligned to the NTVETQF guidelines?

What are the entry requirements for these qualifications: Proficiency I, II, Certificate I, Higher National Diploma, and Bachelor degree?

What are the further education and training programs on offer to individuals in the technical and vocational occupations to their career pathways?

In what specific ways is the institution preparing occupations in the sector for progression from the lower to higher qualifications and respective jobs?

Are you (employers' association/trade unions) represented on the regulatory body?

What are the tourism and hospitality academic qualifications offered in your institution? ( Training providers )

What programs of education and training do you provide for your employees? ( Beneficiary institutions )

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Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank the ILO team: Ms. Vanessa L. Phala (ILO Country Director for Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Liberia and Liaison for ECOWAS), Ms. IIca Webster (ILO Senior Skills Specialist for West Africa), Mr. Adetor Frank Kwasi (National Project Coordinator-ILO SKILL UP Ghana Component) and Mrs Elsie Amo (Project Administrative Officer-ILO SKILL UP Ghana Component); SSB team: Dr. Eunice Amissah (Chairperson), Mr. Kwesi Eyison, (Vice Chairperson), Dr. Adelaide Mensah-Kuffour (Secretary), Mrs. Bella Ehu (President of GHATOF), and Mr. Emmanuel Frimpong (Executive Secretary of GHATOF) and Tourism & Hospitality Sector Skills Body members and the two anonymous reviewers for their insightful and constructive comments from which the present paper greatly improved. The authors give special thanks to CTVET: Dr Fred Kyei Asamoah (Director General-CTVET), Mr. Theophilus Tetteh Zogblah (Coordinator-CTVET), and Ms. Edith Adotey (Program Officer-CTEVT), Data Collection/Interviews- Mrs. Egi Gaise. Any remaining errors or deficiencies are solely the authors’ responsibility.

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Fascinating map reveals every country's favourite summer holiday destination with London and Dubai taking first place

• The map was drawn up by Google search data that identified which spots residents are searching for
• The research also reveals America's most popular international and domestic summer holiday destinations 
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A fascinating map has revealed the most popular summer destinations around the world - and it's London and Dubai  that are the globe's joint favourite spots.

On the map, country names have been supplemented with the names of the places their residents most want to visit. The most popular summer destinations for each nation were identified by an analysis of  Google search data and keywords related to summer travel, including searches made both in English and in the native language of each respective country.

London and Dubai each top the bucket lists of 10 countries. Norway, Iceland, Ireland and Spain are among the countries searching for the UK capital, while the residents of  Pakistan , Qatar , and Mauritius are all hoping for a summer holiday in Dubai.

The research reveals that for Americans, Cancun is the most popular international destination and Las Vegas  is the most sought-after domestic destination.

Miami is the second-most popular summer destination worldwide and is the top choice for eight countries, including Guatemala, Panama and Peru.

In the study, by tech website Cloudwards , Barcelona comes third with six countries placing the Catalan capital first, including Portugal, Hungary and the Czech Republic.

Next is the capital of Argentina, Buenos Aires, which is favoured by five countries, including neighbouring Paraguay and Uruguay.

Tokyo and Toronto share voting honours, with the two cities ranking joint fifth with four votes each. Toronto is top of the list for Jamaica and the Dominican Republic, while the Japanese capital is first in Thailand and Singapore.

In joint third are Malaga, Paris, Rome and Singapore, ranking first in three countries each. 

Cancun, first for Canada as well as the U.S, and Lisbon, first for Switzerland and France, rank joint seventh with two votes each.

Other destinations to make the ranking, coming top in just one country each, include Athens, Bali, Cyprus, Florence, Hong Kong and Istanbul.

A separate map for the U.S reveals the most popular summer destinations abroad for every state.

While Cancun ranks first as America's most popular summer destination globally, due to it receiving the highest search volume overall, the research found Cancun and London each top the list in 18 states individually.

Residents in Kentucky, Colorado and Texas hope to holiday in Mexico’s coastal city. Meanwhile, those in New York, Tennessee and Florida all want a summer holiday across the pond.

Vancouver Island takes second place with a total of three votes from Alaska, Oregon and Washington.

Located off Canada’s Pacific Coast, the summer destination offers ‘a mix of mountainscapes, beaches along the Fraser River Delta and vibrant city life', according to Cloudwards.

In joint third place are Tokyo and Bermuda, which top the wish lists of two states each. Connecticut and New Hampshire place Bermuda first, while those in California and Hawaii wish to venture further afield.

The study also reveals that Americans like travelling internationally to Tulum, Singapore, Toronto, Machu Picchu, Florence and Istanbul in the summer. The holiday destinations rank first in one state each.

A third map shows the top domestic summer destination spots for Americans.

First-place Las Vegas wins by a landslide of 14 votes, with Arizona, Florida, Illinois, Idaho, Minnesota and Hawaii all ranking the ‘neon city’ first.

‘Aside from casinos and gambling arenas, Las Vegas also has kids' activities, like theme parks, botanical gardens, aquariums and circuses,’ Cloudwards notes.

Boston and Chicago tie for second place, with votes from five states each. Chicago ranks first in Iowa, Missouri, Wisconsin and Indiana, while Boston is top in New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine.

In third place is Denver, coming top in four states including Nebraska and South Dakota.

The Floridian coastal destinations of Panama City Beach and Miami tie for fourth place, each ranking first in three states. Panama City Beach ranks top for residents in Tennessee, Alabama and Georgia, while Miami is top for New Jersey, New York and Massachusetts.

Seattle, Memphis, Washington D.C and Myrtle Beach come joint fifth, each ranking as the top summer destination for two states.

Other cities to make the ranking, with one vote each, include Philadelphia, Baltimore, Nashville, Houston, San Diego, Minneapolis, Dallas, Charlotte and Portland.

To find out more about the research, and the most popular summer destinations, visit: www.cloudwards.net/where-the-world-wants-to-go-for-summer-vacation/ .

THE MOST POPULAR HOLIDAY SPOTS WORLDWIDE FOR THE SUMMER OF 2024

1= London - 10 (countries that prefer this destination)

1= Dubai -  10

2. Miami - 8 

3. Barcelona - 6 

4. Buenos Aires - 5

5= Tokyo - 4

5= Toronto - 4

6= Malaga - 3

6= Paris - 3

6= Rome - 3

6= Singapore - 3

7= Cancun - 2 

7= Lisbon - 2 

8= Athens - 1 

8=  Bali - 1

8= Cyprus - 1

8= Florence 

8= Hong Kong - 1

8= Istanbul - 1

8= Jerusalem - 1

8= Lima - 1

8= Melbourne - 1

8= Moscow - 1

8= Prague - 1

8= Seoul - 1 

8= Thessaloniki - 1 

8= Zanzibar - 1

Source: Cloudwards