home visit protocol for schools

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6 Home Visiting: Essential Guidelines for Home Visits and Engaging With Families

• Published: August 2008
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Home visiting has a long history in education, family and child welfare, and physical and mental health services. Home visits are critical in serving children and youth from birth to high school and in addressing issues ranging from programs for pre-school children through school system concerns. Educational organizations rely on home visits to address a wide range of issues related to student behaviors such as attendance, discipline, physical or mental challenges, drug or alcohol abuse, depression, or antisocial activities. Other home visits focus on student characteristics relating specifically to school performance, such as risk for school failure among pre-school children or low academic achievement among school-aged children. This chapter presents information relevant for school social workers and others who provide services to school-aged students and their families. It begins with providing information on the prevalence of home visiting and a brief review of program outcomes. It then includes guidelines for home visiting, specific information for preparing for a home visit, and a framework and strategies to guide the actual home visit. Additional resources are provided to illustrate the various types of programs, purposes, and outcomes of home visitation.

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Home Visits

When is the last time you visited or called a parent or guardian without bad news?

Administrators

How are you equipping teachers to build relationships with families through visits? Learn the benefits of home visits and best practices for how to prepare for and conduct them.

Best Practices

These are some best practices for teachers and administrators concerning home visits:  

• Visits should be voluntary for educators and families, but administrators should seek at least 50 percent participation from a school’s staff.  
• Home visits should always be arranged in advance. It’s helpful for schools to decide if they want educators to visit families once or twice per year and whether that first visit will take place before the school year begins. Some districts also follow up home visits with family dinners at the school to continue deepening school-family ties.  
• If possible, schools should compensate educators for their home-visit work and train them effectively.  
• Educators should visit in teams of two. In some cases, teachers partner with other teachers, social workers or the school nurse to help address a student’s well-being in a more comprehensive manner.  
• It’s important that educators visit a cross-section of students—ideally all of them—rather than target any particular group.  
• The goal of the first home visit is to build relationships. Educators should talk about families’ hopes and aspirations for their students.

Note to teachers: Take extra care when communicating with immigrant families about visiting their homes. Make it clear in advance that you are not from any government immigration agency, such as ICE, and that you will not talk with any such agency. Also, do not ask about immigration status during the visit—or at any other time.

The Benefits

Family engagement contributes to a range of positive student outcomes, including:

• Improved achievement;
• Decreased disciplinary issues;
• Improved parent- or guardian-child and teacher-child relationships.

Different Families, Different Visits

Just as instruction is differentiated, so too are home visits. Depending on the needs of the student and family and the previous history of the teacher-family relationship, a home visit might be:

• A formal conversation on the couch;
• A meal together;
• A guided tour of a home (including favorite toys and hangout spots);
• Walking the family dog in the park or another excursion to an agreed-upon meeting place.

Note: Keep in mind that some families may not be comfortable having guests in their homes and would prefer to meet somewhere else. In this case, you could offer the school or another location as a meeting place.

Story From the Field: Keep Your Eyes On the Speaker

“I once went on a home visit to a trailer home. We sat at the kitchen table, and I was astounded to see a hole around a foot and a half in diameter right in the middle of the kitchen, through which I could see the dirt underneath the trailer. However, as mortified as I was, I thought that it probably was even more mortifying for the mother who so kindly received me. She was probably embarrassed and the least I could do was to keep my eyes on her and focus on our conversation instead of on the material distractions around us. My job is to focus on the human being, not on the dehumanizing conditions many people have to live in.”

—Barbie Garayúa-Tudryn, elementary school counselor and TT Advisory Board member

Home Visit Checklist:

• Participate in home-visit training.
• Call each student’s home, and explain the purpose of the visit.
• Schedule the visit.
• Determine if a translator is needed. The student should not serve as a translator.
• Confirm the day before or the day of the home visit.
• Before the visit, reflect on the reason you’re there in the first place: to build a relationship with the family and collaborate with them for the well-being of the child.
• The visit should be 20-30 minutes long.
• Bring a partner.
• Get to know the family. Find out if they have other children in school.
• Talk about the family’s hopes for their students and share yours.
• Avoid taking notes or bringing paperwork, which can make families feel as if they are being evaluated and can cause nervousness and disengagement.
• If you need to share paperwork, wait 20-30 minutes before delivering it or plan to send it at a later date.
• Ask the family what they need from you, and make a plan to connect again in the future.
• Make a phone call or send a text or note thanking the parents or guardians for the meeting.
• Invite the family to an upcoming event.
• Document the visit, and share takeaways with appropriate stakeholders.
• Follow up with any resource needs that came up during the visit.

To learn more, read “ Meet the Family ” and watch our on-demand webinar Equity Matters: Engaging Families Through Home Visits .

Critical Training Elements for Administrators

Training and preparing for a home visit can be as important as the visit itself. Consider these pointers from the experts when designing professional development for your home-visit program.

• Review logistics , such as how to make contact, how and when to schedule visits, whether and how to record discussions with families, and what to do with the documentation and data.  
• Remind teachers to leave assumptions behind and keep an open mind regarding each family, their culture and their values.  
• Address implicit bias and the impact it can have on what educators or families will perceive during the home visit. To learn more about implicit bias, view our on-demand webinar Equity Matters: Confronting Implicit Bias .  
• Some prior knowledge is essential , such as whether a translator will be necessary (it is not appropriate to use the student as a translator), whether the family has access to a working phone or if the child lives between two households.  
• Coach teachers to establish the purpose for the visit ahead of time. Goals should focus on getting to know the child as a learner and setting the stage for partnership, not on problematic behavior or performance.  
• Model how to talk about both the student and the family. Some families may have significant needs. Connecting them to resources can benefit their child’s learning.

For more information, explore the work of The Parent Teacher Home Visit Project and the Family and Community Engagement Team at Denver Public Schools.

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Home Visits: Reaching Beyond the Classroom

Get to know your students and strengthen the home-school partnership with these seven tips for reaching out to parents and meeting families.

As a teacher at a small Oakland, California public high school called Life Academy , where each teacher also holds a mixed-grade level advisory class of about 20 students, I began conducting home visits for my advisees as a way to clarify my relationship to them as more than a teacher. After all, we would be together for the next four years. I would be their advocate when they struggled in other classes, the one who would write their letters of recommendation, announce them at graduation, and ask them about their day, every day. Part of this relationship was an initial visit to each student's home.

Seeking Home-School Partnership

To make home visits manageable, I only visited the homes of the four to five ninth graders who were new to my advisory class. The first year I did this, there was a lot of pushback from students who weren't used to having a teacher visit their home, but in the second year, the tenth graders were able to sell the idea for me. They'd say, "Yeah, she came to our house, too. It was cool!"

Once there was buy-in from the class, the home visits were relatively easy to set up. The student would check with their parent and find a good time for me to stop by. Often the parents were relieved to hear that they didn't have to get off work early or find time to come to me. In fact, some of my students' parents began to request home visits, and I happily obliged. I always gave myself a full hour, but rarely needed it. I visited homes after school, in the evening, or on the weekend, whatever was best for the family. While I've heard the advice to conduct home visits with a partner teacher, I personally felt that going alone made it more comfortable for the family.

One time, when I was visiting the home of soccer star Angela, her mom had prepared a full meal for me, and the visit lasted well into the evening when she invited me into the back yard to pick lemons for my own family. After that visit, despite the language gap (I am proficient but not fluent in Spanish), whenever I saw Angela's mom at school events or at on-campus parent conferences, it was more like seeing an old friend. We were comfortable with each other. She felt accepted by me, and I felt respected by her. We were partners in her daughter's education.

Of course, it didn't always go so idyllically. Once I visited the home of Payton, whose mom was volatile and even hostile in meetings. I had met her several times before the home visit because Payton was in trouble at school early and often. At his house, I was formally welcomed but felt out of place as we sat in the living room and his numerous brothers clamored for his mother's attention. His mom told me about how three of Payton’s male role models had been killed in the last few years. I was glad to have had a glimpse at his home life, even though its reality made me feel more powerless than before. I imagined that as out of place as I felt in his mother's home, she must also feel the same way when visiting the school. If nothing else, the visit allowed me to empathize more clearly with Payton and his family.

The Power of a Visit

Whenever I coach new teachers, I encourage them to visit the homes of students as early as possible. It's just about the quickest way to understand a student better. Home visits should also be considered when a student is new to a school due to a transfer. While I made it a personal policy to visit the homes of all my ninth grade advisees, I also recognized that the impact of home visits could have been multiplied had it been a school-wide practice. Can you imagine if every ninth grader got a visit from his or her advisor, and if each family felt personally welcomed to the school? At my school, we've made time for on-campus parent conferences by modifying our schedules, but we haven't yet prioritized home visits. I think meeting parents and guardians where they are most comfortable could make a big difference. It certainly did for Louise Rocha-McCarthy and Annie Huynh .

In my own experience, visiting my student Diego at his house when he had been out of school for several weeks is what got him to come back to school, albeit briefly. I saw the power of home visits again this year when one of our most challenging students had missed several weeks of school. An email chain revealed that no one had been able to reach the family to find out why he had been away. Students were starting to ask where he was and why none of his teachers knew the answer. That very afternoon, three of his after-school mentors went together to his home and by the next day he was back in class. While the visit clearly had a positive impact on the young man, this impact rippled throughout school, too. Students saw without a doubt that the adults at school, not just classroom teachers, cared for even the most troubled student, and that being absent didn’t mean being invisible.

7 Suggestions for Visiting

Here are a few tips to get the most out of your home visit:

• Make home visits a part of your classroom or school culture so that no one feels singled out.
• Systematize who gets home visits to keep the practice manageable for you.
• Set aside strategic times during the year for home visits.
• Be flexible about when you do a home visit. Let the parent or guardian decide the date and time.
• Be prepared to share one concrete example of a way that you've seen the student shine.
• Don't discuss grades or behavior. This is a time for getting to know the family. Ask them open-ended questions. Ask your student to show you where they do their homework.
• Thank the family for allowing you in to their home.

Have you visited your students at home? Please share your experiences in the comments below.

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Home Visitor Safety

You can work with other program administrators and community resources to implement policies, procedures, and strategies that can contribute to home visitors’ and families’ safety in unsafe situations. As you put safety plans and measures in place, keep the following concepts in mind [ 5 ]:

Sometimes situations, such as crises, arise that pose some degree of risk to the safety of family members and home visitors.  The potential for physical harm exists in any emotionally charged crisis. Staff should never overlook or discount that potential.

Home visitors’ skills in handling a potentially dangerous situation shape intervention decisions. Sometimes home visitors find themselves faced with, or caught up in, a family situation that is too complex or too dangerous for them to address directly. At such times, it is critical to recognize that the situation is beyond their intervention abilities and to discuss alternatives with their supervisor.

The best predictor of impending danger is behavior. Safety measures are called for if a family member's current or past behavior includes violent/abusive acts, threats of harm, criminal activities, the use of addictive substances, signs of a serious emotional disorder, or threats of suicide. These measures are needed at several points in the intervention process: before face-to-face visits with the family, during face-to-face visits, and as part of referral and follow-up services.

Home visitors must always be aware of behaviors and situations that signal danger. Some violent incidents may be predicted, but many helping professionals fail to recognize signs of potential violence. Signs of loss of control and impending danger include expressions of anger and hostility. Staff may also sense that a situation is dangerous; know the family has access to guns or other weapons; be aware of violent acts or threats by family friends or relatives; and recognize mounting tension, irritability, agitation, brooding, and/or limit testing in family members.

Home visitors must be and feel safe if they are to support families. Home visitor safety can and must be addressed at many levels. The threat of violence does not occur only in the homes of families or in high-crime neighborhoods, but also in seemingly secure workplaces. Work conditions favorable to violence prevention require action at management, supervisory, and personal levels.

Some general strategies that you may consider include the following:

• Have home visitors work in pairs, particularly when they go to more dangerous neighborhoods. Accompany home visitors, if needed.
• Forge a relationship with the local police department. When police are aware of home visitors’ presence in the community, they may be able to provide protection such as self-defense training and alerts as to potentially hazardous events in the community.
• Provide cell phones, beepers, or other communication devices. Work with finance and other program staff to ensure the budget covers this equipment.
• Involve families in home visitor safety. They often know of potential safety hazards in the neighborhood (e.g., high-crime areas, gang activity) and can inform home visitors of the safest way to travel through the area.
• Work with program administrators and community resources to develop crisis protocols and make sure home visitors are aware of them. Provide opportunities for home visitors to review and practice implementing protocols. Topics may include child abuse/child neglect, substance misuse, violence in the neighborhood, and the presence of a contagious disease.
• Make sure that you or another administrator is “on call” whenever a home visitor is in the field, including after hours and weekends, so that home visitors can get an immediate response when needed.
• Make sure you know home visitors’ schedules. This should include family names and contact information, date and time of visit, and when to expect the home visitor to return. 

In addition, you might encourage home visitors to do the following [ 4 ]:

• Trust their instincts. If they feel something is not right or see something in the home that makes them uncomfortable (e.g., physical or verbal violence, alcohol/drug use, evidence of firearms, or the presence of an acutely intoxicated individual), follow established protocols and leave, if necessary. Encourage home visitors to say to the parent, “Maybe this isn’t a good time for a visit. Let’s reschedule.” Before going on future visits, encourage home visitors to talk with you about how to ensure their safety in the home. Work with home visitors to talk with the parent about the issues that made them feel uncomfortable and to make referrals if needed.
• Wear comfortable shoes.
• Get clear directions to the neighborhood and the home or apartment building, especially for new visits. Take a practice drive to make sure the directions work. Confirm how to enter the home if it is a duplex or apartment.
• Ask families where it is best to park, and park as close to the home as possible. Always park in well-lit areas. If it is not possible for the home visitor to park in a safe place, discuss other options, such as meeting the family in another setting or being driven and picked up by a co-worker.
• Put any important or valuable items in the trunk of the car before arriving for the visit. Avoid carrying and wearing expensive items.
• Contact parents before a visit so they can be on the lookout for the home visitor.
• If no one answers the door, sit in the car or drive around the block rather than wait at the door. Make sure to specify the amount of time home visitors should wait if a family is not home as part of your home visit protocol.
• Make sure home visitors’ cars are in good working order and that there is plenty of gas in the tank.
• Organize belongings so they do not have to take time to search for them. For example, when they leave a home visit, they should have their keys in hand.

4 Rebecca Parlakian and Nancy Seibel, Help Me Grow Home Visitor Curriculum (Cuyahoga County, OH: Help Me Grow of Cuyahoga County, 2005).

5 Head Start Bureau, “Assessing Family Crisis.” Excerpts from Training Guides for the Head Start Learning Community: Supporting Families in Crisis (Washington, DC: Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration for Children, Youth and Families, 2000), https://eclkc.ohs.acf.hhs.gov/mental-health/article/assessing-family-crisis.

Resource Type: Article

National Centers: Early Childhood Development, Teaching and Learning

Program Option: Home-Based Option

Last Updated: May 22, 2023

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Impacts of Home Visiting Programs on Young Children’s School Readiness

Grace Kelley, PhD, Erika Gaylor, PhD, Donna Spiker, PhD SRI International, Center for Education and Human Services, USA January 2022 , 2nd rev. ed.

Introduction

Home visiting programs are designed and implemented to support families in providing an environment that promotes the healthy growth and development of their children. Programs target their services to families and caregivers in order to improve child development, enhance school readiness, and promote positive parent-child interactions. Although programs differ in their approach, populations served and intended outcomes, high-quality home visiting programs can provide child development and family support services that reduce risk and increase protective factors.    Home visiting programs addressing school readiness are most effective when delivered at the community level, through a comprehensive early childhood system that includes the supports and services that ensure a continuum of care for all family members across the early years.  School readiness includes the readiness of the individual child, the school’s readiness to support children, and the ability of the family and community to support early child development, health, and well being. In addition to home visiting services, appropriate referrals to community services, including to preschool programs, offer a low-cost universal approach that increases the chances of early school success. This comprehensive approach to home visiting as a part of a broad early childhood system has been identified as an effective strategy to help close the gap in school readiness and child well-being associated with poverty and early childhood adversity. 1,2 

Home visitation is a type of service-delivery model that can be used to provide many different kinds of interventions to target participants. 3,4 Home visiting programs can vary widely in their goals, clients, providers, activities, schedules and administrative structure. They share some common elements, however. Home visiting programs provide structured services:

• in a home a  ;
• from a trained service provider;
• in order to alter the knowledge, beliefs and/or behaviour of children and caregivers or others in the caregiving environment, and to provide parenting support. 5

Home visits are often structured to provide consistency across participants, providers, and visits and to link program practices with intended outcomes. A visit protocol, a formal curriculum, an individualized service plan, and/or a specific theoretical framework can be the basis for activities that take place during home visits. Services are delivered in the living space of the participating family and within their ongoing daily routines and activities. The providers may be credentialed or certified professionals, paraprofessionals, or volunteers, but typically they have received some form of training in the methods and topical content of the program so that they are able to act as a source of expertise and support for caregivers. 6 Finally, home visiting programs are attempting to achieve some change on the part of participating families—in their understanding (beliefs about child-rearing, knowledge of child development), and/or actions (their manner of interacting with their child or structuring the environment, ability to provide healthy meals, engage in prenatal health care)—or on the part of the child (change in rate of development, health status, etc.). Home visiting also may be used as a way to provide case management, make referrals to existing community services including early intervention for those with delays and disabilities, or bring information to parents or caregivers to support their ability to provide a positive and healthy home environment for their children. 3,4,7

Data about the efficacy of home visiting programs have been accumulating over the past several decades. The federal Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting (MIECHV) program launched in the U.S. in 2012 and its accompanying national Mother and Infant Home Visiting Program Evaluation (MIHOPE)  (which included 4 models - Early Head Start’s Home-based option, Healthy Families America, Nurse-Family Partnership, and Parents as Teachers), and the Home Visiting Evidence of Effectiveness (HoMVEE) reviews has contributed much new data about program features, implementation, and impacts. 8-12 More of the research has  used randomized controlled trial (RCT) or quasi-experimental designs, with multiple data sources and outcome measures, and longitudinal follow-up. These studies, along with older reviews,  and recent meta-analyses have generally found that home visiting programs produce a limited range of significant effects and that the effects produced are often small. 4,13,14 Nevertheless, a review of seven evidence-based home visiting models showed all seven to have at least one study with positive impacts on child development and school readiness outcomes. 13 Detailed analyses, however, sometimes reveal important program effects. For example, certain subsets of participants may experience long-term positive outcomes on specific variables. 15,16 These results and others suggest that in assessing the efficacy of home visiting programs, it is important to include measures of multiple child and family outcomes at various points in time and to collect enough information about participants to allow for an analysis of the program effects on various types of subgroups. Averaging effects across multiple studies is currently seen as an inadequate approach to understanding what works for whom. 17

Other difficulties when conducting or evaluating research in this area include ensuring the equivalency of the control and experimental groups in randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 18 controlling for participant attrition (which may affect the validity of findings by reducing group equivalence) and missed visits (which may affect validity by reducing program intensity), 19 documenting that the program was fully and accurately implemented, and determining whether the program’s theory of change logically connects program activities with intended outcomes.

Research Context

Because home visiting programs differ in their goals and content, research into their efficacy must be tailored to program-specific goals, practices, and participants. (See also chapter by Korfmacher and coll. ) In general, home visiting programs can be grouped into those seeking medical/physical health outcomes and those seeking parent-child interaction and child development outcomes. The target population may be identified at the level of the caregiver (e.g., teen mothers, low-income families) or the child (e.g., children with disabilities). Some programs may have broad and varied goals, such as improving prenatal and perinatal health, nutrition, safety, and parenting. Other programs may have narrower goals, such as reducing the incidence of child abuse and neglect. Program outcomes may focus on adults or on children; providers frequently cite multiple goals (e.g., improved child development, parent social-emotional support, parent education). 10  

In this chapter, we focus on the effectiveness of home visiting programs in promoting developmental, cognitive, and school readiness outcomes in children. The majority of home visiting services and research have focused on the period prenatally through 2 to 3 years and thus have not measured long-term impacts on school readiness and school achievement, but some of the more recent studies have done follow up into elementary school. However, most of the available studies have examined the impact on these outcomes indirectly through changes in parenting practices and precursors to successful school success (i.e., positive behaviour outcomes including self-regulation and attention).

Key Research Questions

Key research questions include the following:

• What are the short-term and long-term benefits experienced by participating families and their children relative to nonparticipating families, particularly for children’s school readiness skills and parenting to support child development?
• What factors influence participation and nonparticipation in the program?
• Do outcomes differ for different subgroups?

Research Results

Recent advances in program design, evaluation and funding have supported the implementation of home visiting as a practical intervention to improve the health, safety and education of children and families, mitigating the impact of poverty and adverse early childhood experiences. 3 Although program approaches and quality may vary, there are common positive effects found on parenting knowledge, beliefs, and/or behaviour and child cognitive, language, and social-emotional development. In order to achieve the intended outcomes, programs need to have clearly defined interventions and outcome measures, with a process to monitor quality. 20  Recent research has begun to focus on how measures to assess quality can be used to monitor programs and program improvement efforts. 21,22  

A review of seven home visiting program models across 16 studies conducted over a decade ago that included rigorous evaluation components and measured child development and school readiness outcomes concluded positive impacts on young children’s development and behaviour. Six models showed favourable effects on primary outcome measures (e.g., standardized measures of child development outcomes and reduction in behaviour problems). 23 Only studies with outcomes using direct observation, direct assessment, or administrative records were included. More recent reviews also show relatively small effects on developmental outcomes, but authors noted that “modest effect sizes in studies concerning developmental delay can result in important population-level effects given the high proportion of children in low-income families (nearly 20%) meeting criteria for early intervention services”. 3  A rigorous review conducted more recently in 2018 identified 21 home visiting models that met criteria of being an evidence-based model. 11 That review concluded that 12 of the models had evidence for favorable impacts on child development and school readiness outcomes. Recent and continuing research has been focusing on families with infants and toddlers living in poverty who are at higher risk for adverse early childhood experiences (ACES) that can lead to lifelong negative effects on physical and emotional health, and  educational success. 3,24 For example, the Adverse Childhood Experiences study indicates that traumatic experiences in early childhood can have lifelong impacts on physical and mental health. Data from this study indicate that children with 2 or more adverse experiences are more likely to repeat a grade. Home visiting programs can mitigate the effects of toxic stress, enhancing parenting skills and creating more positive early childhood experiences. 24,25 This research points to the importance of targeted home visiting programs to families who are experiencing stress and a recent meta-analysis of home visiting with such families indeed shows decreases in both social-emotional problems and stressful experiences. 26  

Problems identified in earlier reviews completed in the 1990s still plague this field, however, including that many models have limited rigorous research studies. In many of the studies described in previous and more recent reviews and meta-analyses, programs struggled to enroll, engage, and retain families. When program benefits are demonstrated, they usually accrued only to a subset of families originally enrolled in the programs, they rarely occurred for all of a program’s goals, and the benefits were often quite modest in magnitude. 27    The generally small effects on outcomes averaged across studies have led researchers to call for precision home visiting research to look at what works for whom. 17,28 (Also see chapter by Korfmacher and coll .).

Research into the implementation of home visiting programs has documented a common set of difficulties across programs in delivering services as intended. (See also Paulsell chapter ) First, target families may not accept initial enrollment into the program. Two studies that collected data on this aspect of implementation found that one-tenth to one-quarter of families declined invitations to participate in the home visiting program. 29,30 In another study, 20 percent of families that agreed to participate did not begin the program by receiving an initial visit. 19 Second, families may not receive the full number of planned visits. Evaluation of the Nurse Family Partnership model found that families received only half of the scheduled number of visits. 31 Evaluations of the Hawaii Healthy Start and the Parents as Teachers programs found that 42 percent and 38 percent to 56 percent of scheduled visits respectively were actually conducted. 29,32 Even when visits are conducted, the planned curriculum and visit activities may not be presented according to the program model, and families may not follow through with the activities outside of the home visit. 33,34 Recent research has begun to examine how technical assistance and training supports delivered to home visiting program supervisors and home visitors can improve model fidelity. 35 (See Paulsell chapter. )  In a review of home visiting research in the 1990s, Gomby, Culross, and Berman 27 found that between 20 percent and 67 percent of enrolled families left home visitation programs before the scheduled termination date. More recent studies continue to show a persistent problem with families leaving the program and not engaging in visits as intended by program developers. For example, in the MIHOPE evaluation, about 28% of families left MIHOPE home visiting programs within six months, while about 55% were still receiving about two visits per month after a year. 9 With only about half of families remaining after one year, many families were only receiving half of the intended number of visits. 8 Studies of Early Head Start also show that families with the greatest number of risk factors are the most likely to drop out which was also observed in the recent MIHOPE study. 36  

The assumed link between parent behaviour change and improved outcomes for children has received mixed research support. In other words, even when home visitation programs succeed in their goal of changing parent behaviour, these changes do not always appear to produce significantly better child outcomes in the short term, but in some cases appear to have an impact in the long term. 37,38  Examples include a study of the Home Instruction Program for Preschool Youngsters (HIPPY) model with low-income Latino families showing changes in parenting practices and better third-grade math achievement and positive impacts on both math and reading achievement in fifth grade. 39,40 Earlier evaluations of HIPPY found mixed results regarding program effectiveness. In some cohorts, program participants outperformed nonparticipants on measures of school adaptation and achievement through second grade, but these results were not replicated with other cohorts at other sites.

Both older and more recent reviews of home visiting programs described above included only studies using rigorous designs and measurement and a number of models show significant impacts on child development and school readiness outcomes. The Early Head Start model used a RCT design to study the impact of a mixed-model service delivery (i.e., center-based and home-visiting) on developmental outcomes at 2- and 3-year follow-up. Overall, there were small, but significant gains on cognitive development at 3 years, but not 2 years. More recent Early Head Start evaluations find positive impacts at ages 2 and 3 on cognition, language, attention, behaviour problems, and health and on maternal parenting, mental health, and employment outcomes, with better attention and approaches toward learning and fewer behavior problems at age 5 than the control group, but no differences on early school achievement. 41 Nonexperimental follow-up showed, however, that those children who went on to attend preschool after EHS did have better early school achievement. Studies of the Nurse Family Partnership model followed children to 6 years and found significant program effects on language and cognitive functioning as well as fewer behaviour problems in a RCT study. 42 In addition, evaluations of Healthy Families America have shown small, but favourable effects on young children’s development. 43,44  

Home visiting programs focusing on supporting parents’ abilities to promote children’s development explicitly appear to impact children’s development positively. One meta-analysis found that programs that taught parent responsiveness and parenting practices found better cognitive outcomes for children. 4 A meta-analysis of RCTs found that the most pronounced effect for parent-child interactions and maternal sensitivity can be improved in a shorter period of time, where effects of interventions on child development may take longer to emerge. 45 Several studies find longer-term impacts on parenting and associated positive effects for child outcomes. In a RCT of a New York Healthy Families America program, the program reduced first grade retention rates and doubled the number of first graders demonstrating early academic skills for those participating in the program. 2 And at least one recent longitudinal study of Parents as Teachers found positive school achievement and reduced disciplinary problems in early elementary school along with increased scores on parent measures of interactions, knowledge of child development, and family support. 46

Other studies were unable to document program impacts on parenting and home environment factors that are predictive of children’s early learning and development through control group designs. An evaluation of Hawaii’s Healthy Start program found no differences between experimental and control groups in maternal life course (attainment of educational and life goals), substance abuse, partner violence, depressive symptoms, the home as a learning environment, parent-child interaction, parental stress, and child developmental and health measures. 43 However, program participation was associated with a reduction in the number of child abuse cases.   

Other models show mixed impacts. A 1990’s RCT evaluation of the Parents as Teachers (PAT) program also failed to find differences between groups on measures of parenting knowledge and behaviour or child health and development. 32 Small positive differences were found for teen mothers and Latina mothers on some of these measures. However, another RCT study with the Parents as Teachers Born to Learn curriculum did find significant effects on cognitive development and mastery motivation at age 2 for the low socioeconomic families only. 47  Furthermore, a more recent RCT in Switzerland found that children receiving the PAT program had improved adaptive behavior and enhanced language skills at age 3 with the most high-risk children also having reductions in problem behaviours. 48 A randomized controlled trial of Family Check-Up demonstrated favourable impacts on at risk toddlers’ behaviour and positive parenting practices. 49

Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have also shown that programs are more likely to have positive effects when targeted to the neediest subgroups in a population. For example, in the Nurse Family Partnership model children born to mothers with low psychological resources had better academic achievement in math and reading in first through sixth grade compared to their control peers (i.e., mothers without the intervention with similar characteristics). 50,51 (See also updated information in the Donelan-McCall & Olds chapter ).

The largest RCT of a comprehensive early intervention program for low-birth-weight, premature infants (birth to age three), the Infant Health and Development Program, included a home visiting component along with an educational centre-based program. 52 At age three, intervention group children had significantly better cognitive and behavioural outcomes and improved parent-child interactions. The positive outcomes were most pronounced in the poorest socioeconomic group of children and families and in those who participated in the intervention most fully. In follow-up studies, improvements in cognitive and behavioural development were also found at age 8 and 18 years for those in the heavier weight group. 53 The Chicago Child-Parent  Center Program also combined a structured preschool program with a home visitation component. This program found long-term differences between program participants and matched controls. Participating children had higher rates of high-school completion, lower rates of grade retention and special education placement, and a lower rate of juvenile arrests and impacts lasting into adulthood. 54-56 Another example showing more intensive programming has larger impacts is the Healthy Steps evaluation showing significantly better child language outcomes when the program was initiated prenatally through 24 months. 57 Early Head Start studies cited earlier also show that combining home visiting with later preschool attendance will yield better school readiness impacts than home visiting alone. Finally, there is a need to look at how home visiting could be beneficial for improving school outcomes when combined with a preschool program as in a recent study with families in Head Start programs that found reduced need for educational and mental health services in third grade. 58 These studies suggest that a more intensive intervention involving the child directly may be required for larger effects on school readiness to be seen with home visiting as one part of a more comprehensive approach.

Conclusions

Research on home visitation programs has not been able to show that these programs alone have a strong and consistent effect on participating children and families, but modest effects have been repeatedly reported for children’s early development and behaviour and parenting behaviours and discipline practices. Programs that are designed and implemented with greater rigour seem to provide better results. Home visitation programs also appear to offer greater benefits to certain subgroups of families, such as low-income, single, teen mothers.

These conclusions support recent attention to use of research designs that look at more differentiation of the program models and components to match the needs of the families aimed at improving child development and other outcomes. Precision home visiting uses research to identify what aspects of home visiting work for which families in what circumstance, resulting in programs that target interventions to the needs of particular families. 17  

Future research needs to examine the role of evidence-based home visiting within a more comprehensive system of services across the first five years of life.  It can be an initial cost -effective strategy to build trusting relationships and support early positive parenting that will improve children’s development over the long run because families will have increased likelihood of enrolling their children in preschool programs and use other needed child and family supports. 

Furthermore, efficacy research needs to include longitudinal designs and simultaneously include cost-benefit studies to demonstrate the long-term cost savings that will build public support for both early home visiting programs and a more comprehensive early childhood system. 

The recent Covid-19 pandemic brought to light the disparities and inequities of our early childhood service systems (as well as our later education systems). This state of affairs also has reinforced the benefit of more authentic participatory approaches in research and evaluation to identify what works and for whom.  Research and evaluation that includes various stakeholders, from those who are affected by an issue to those that fund the programs, promises to provide insights and perspectives that can strengthen the impact of home visiting programs. 

Implications

Programs that are successful with families at increased risk for poor child development outcomes tend to be programs that offer a comprehensive focus—targeting families’ multiple needs—and therefore may be more expensive to develop, implement, and maintain. In their current state of development, home visitation programs alone do not appear to represent the low-cost solution to child health and developmental problems that policymakers and the public have hoped for for decades. However, as the field continues to research more precision approaches that match program components to child and family needs, add the needed assistance and professional development supports to ensure model fidelity, and incorporate home visiting programs within a comprehensive early childhood system across the first five years of life, more consistent and positive results for participating target families are to be expected.

For high risk families with multiple challenges and levels of adversity, home visiting programs can serve to encourage families to take advantage of preschool programs available to them and their children and increase their participation in other family support programs during the preschool through 3 rd grade years 59 to further support school readiness outcomes. 

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van Assen AG, Knot-Dickscheit J, Post WJ, Grietens H. Home-visiting interventions for families with complex and multiple problems: A systematic review and meta-analysis of out-of-home placement and child outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review . 2020;114:104994.

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Condon EM. Maternal, Infant, and Early Childhood Home Visiting: A Call for a Paradigm Shift in States' Approaches to Funding. Policy, Politics, & Nursing Practice . 2019;20(1):28-40.

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Olds DL, Henderson CR, Jr., Kitzman HJ, Eckenrode JJ, Cole RE, Tatelbaum RC. Prenatal and infancy home visitation by nurses: Recent findings. Future Child . 1999;9(1):44-65.

Korfmacher J, Kitzman H, Olds DL. Intervention processes as predictors of outcomes in a preventive home visitation program. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology . 1998;26(1):49-64.

Wagner MM, Clayton SL. The Parents as Teachers Program: Results from two demonstrations. Future Child. 1999;9(1):91-115.

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Hebbeler KM, Gerlach-Downie SG. Inside the black box of home visiting: A qualitative analysis of why intended outcomes were not achieved. Early Childhood Research Quarterly . 2002;17:28-51.

Chen W-B, Spiker D, Wei X, Gaylor E, Schachner A, Hudson L. Who gets what? Describing the non‐supervisory training and supports received by home visiting staff members and its relationship with turnover. American Journal of Community Psychology . 2019;63:298-311.

Roggman L, Cook G, Peterson CA, Raikes H. Who drops out of Early Head Start home visiting programs? Early Education & Development . 2009;19:574-579.

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Lahti M, Evans CBR, Goodman G, Schmidt MC, LeCroy CW. Parents as Teachers (PAT) home-visiting intervention: A path to improved academic outcomes, school behavior, and parenting skills. Children and Youth Services Review. 2019;99:451-460.

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Olds DL, Kitzman H, Hanks C, Cole R, Anson E, Sidora-Arcoleo K, Luckey DW, Henderson CR Jr, Holmberg J, Tutt RA, Stevenson AJ, Bondy J. Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal and child functioning: Age-9 follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics . 2007;120(4):e832-e845.

Kitzman HJ, Olds DL, Cole RE, Hanks CA, Anson EA, Arcoleo KJ, Luckey DW, Knudtson MD, Henderson CR Jr, Holmberg JR. Enduring effects of prenatal and infancy home visiting by nurses on children: Follow-up of a randomized trial among children at age 12 years. Archives of Pediatric Adolescent Medicine . 2010;164(5):412-418.

Gross RT, Spiker D, Haynes CW, eds. Helping low birth weight, premature babies . Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press; 1997.

Mallik S, Spiker D. Effective early intervention programs for low birth weight premature infants: Review of the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP). In: Tremblay RE, Barr RG, Peters RD, eds. Encyclopedia on early childhood development [online]. Montreal, Quebec: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development; 2016.

Reynolds AJ, Temple JA, Robertson DL, Mann EA. Long-term effects of an early childhood intervention on educational achievement and juvenile arrest: A 15-year follow-up of low-income children in public schools. JAMA . 2001;285(18):2339-2346.

Reynolds AJ, Richardson BA, Hayakawa M, Englund MM, Ou S-R. Multi-site expansion of an early childhood intervention and school readiness. Pediatrics . 2016;138(1):1-11.

Reynolds AJ, Temple JA, Ou S-R, Arteaga IA, White BAB. School-based early childhood education and age-28 well-being: Effects by timing, dosage, and subgroups. Science . 2011;333(6040):36-364.

Johnston BD, Huebner CE, Anderson ML, Tyll LT, Thompson RS. Healthy steps in an integrated delivery system: Child and parent outcomes at 30 months. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine. 2006;160(8):793-800.

Bierman KL, Welsh J, Heinrichs BS, Nix RL. Effect of preschool home visiting on school readiness and need for services in elementary school: A randomized clinical trial. JAMA Pediatrics . 2018;172(8):e181029-e181029.

Magnuson K, Schindler HS. Parent programs in pre-k through third grade. Future Child . 2016;26(2):207-223.

Note: a Services are brought to the family and settings may include the family’s home, or another mutually agreed upon location such as community center, park, or public library. More recently, due to the pandemic, programs have relied on virtual methods or conducting a home visit remotely via digital devices.   

How to cite this article:

Kelley G, Gaylor E, Spiker D. Impacts of Home Visiting Programs on Young Children’s School Readiness. In: Tremblay RE, Boivin M, Peters RDeV, eds. Spiker D, Gaylor E, topic eds. Encyclopedia on Early Childhood Development [online].  https://www.child-encyclopedia.com/home-visiting/according-experts/impacts-home-visiting-programs-young-childrens-school-readiness . Updated: January 2022. Accessed May 18, 2024.

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What Students Are Saying About Making School Lunch Healthier

New nutrition guidelines will mean less salt and sugar in school meals. Teenagers share whether they think students will embrace the changes.

By The Learning Network

School meals will soon contain less salt and sugar under new nutrition guidelines released by the Biden administration. School cafeterias will have to cut sodium levels 15 percent by the 2027-28 academic year. And for the first time, schools will need to limit the amount of added sugars in cereals and yogurts, starting in the 2025-26 academic year.

While many parents and nutritionists applauded the stricter federal regulations, some school lunch administrators fretted that the results will be less tasty to students, reducing consumption and increasing waste.

We asked teenagers for their opinions: Should schools serve healthier meals if it changes students’ favorite foods?

They weighed in on the federal guidelines and whether “healthy” really means “less tasty.” They also shared about their experiences of eating in the school cafeteria, including what works well and what could be improved.

Thank you to everyone who participated in the conversation on our writing prompts this week, including students from schools in Dallas , St. Louis and Seoul .

Please note: Student comments have been lightly edited for length, but otherwise appear as they were originally submitted.

Many students supported the push for more healthful school lunches.

I feel as though we are being served foods that aren’t good for us because we don’t have all the food groups within the meal. Some students have health problems and need to be served healthier meals but the regular school lunches are all fats and carbs just blended in and quite frankly aren’t appetizing. Yes, some schools can’t afford a better lunch system but we still shouldn’t be served that unhealthy stuff. It’s not good for athletes or people with health problems. Schools can magically afford all this technology and all these fancier things in the school but we can’t afford a more healthy food option or better yet, something that actually tastes good. Me, personally, if we had a healthier school lunch I would eat it every day.

I think the lunches at our school are pretty satisfying. There is healthy and delicious Korean food. There is always a dessert for the students. However, I think the school should change the school lunch to a healthier meal because students need to eat a lot of vegetables, which are essential nutrients. Also, the school should provide more delicious dishes and different kinds of side dishes. The best solution is to have multiple options and dishes for vegan and vegetarians. I think junk food should not be part of a school lunch menu. School lunch is important since it hugely influences the students’ day.

— K K, south korea

Compared to other countries’ meals, America’s school lunches are not the most nourishing. Take a standard Japanese school lunch as an example. A balanced meal should have a source of carbohydrates, protein, dairy, and a source of vitamins and minerals that can be found in an average vegetable. A usual school lunch in Japan contains white rice, meat or fish, soup, a salad, and a bottle of milk. A quality, balanced meal such as this should be the standard for school lunches. Of course, this doesn’t mean that less healthy options should be out of the picture, as, who doesn’t want a treat now and then? But judging from my school’s lunches, which can be found as cheese pizza and spaghetti with meatballs, the concern for nutrition is understandable.

— Malaya, Philadelphia, PA

I think there should be a reduction of the amount of salt and sugar schools put into foods. Personally, I don’t even think many kids are considering it when they eat the food, as some people just eat school lunch every day. That being said, reducing the salts and sugars might make the foods taste better, as I find many foods to be over-sweetened and over-salted. Not only would making a change be healthier, but it might even be an improvement to the current menu.

— Livia, Greenbelt MS, Maryland

Others argued that making school food healthier will mean fewer students will eat it.

I believe that the more objectively correct option for student wellbeing is to make the foods healthier, but personally, I wouldn’t want that. Firstly, I don’t even eat school lunch, so my opinion on it is probably different from other people’s opinions … I think that more people might pack lunches if healthier meals that may not taste as good replace the current school lunches. Also, from what I can see, a lot of food gets thrown out, left behind, or just scattered all over the place. Replacing good (sometimes) tasting meals with foods that tend to not taste as good might increase the amount of food not eaten. In conclusion, healthier meals are objectively better for students, however, students may not prefer the healthier options.

— Max, J.R. Masterman School

Students will not embrace the change. Sadly if you take away the foods that taste good and swap them for foods that are healthy but don’t taste as good, there will be some dissatisfaction. I do think it’s important for students to have healthier diets but they might not think the same.

— Tanae, Greenbelt Middle School

I think that enforcing healthy eating habits at school is incredibly important, but flavorless green beans or corn might not be the best solution. For me, I don’t think that the fact that we are served healthy foods is an issue — I dislike many of the foods because they are simply not appetizing. I often enjoy salads at restaurants or at home, but the school cafeteria just seems to make everything taste worse. Judging by the amount of food left in trash cans around the steaming hot cafeteria, it is clear that my peers may feel similarly. Many people I know simply wait until they arrive home to eat, rather than indulge in the school’s delicacies. Snacks from home or vending machines are common ways to avoid cafeteria food. Healthy food is a good idea, but more needs to be done to make it both appetizing and energizing for the student body.

— Calla, Julia R. Masterman, Philadelphia, PA

Some suggested a middle ground, one in which nutritious options exist beside student favorites.

I have seen some school lunches some days in which I wonder how the school is able to serve considering how unhealthy it is. I put a big emphasis on healthy nutrition, so these types of lunches are unfortunate for me. However, we are kids and I do think we could be treated to things that are unhealthy at times. Making school lunches healthier could also build healthier habits for students when they are by themselves at home. This is because they could possibly get used to the health foods they are consuming everyday at lunch and make them want to crave healthier foods at home. Overall, I think it’s a good idea to give students healthier foods, but I don’t think it should be 100% healthy.

— Brendan, Baker High School

It really depends on the student body. Different people have different preferences. The best solution would be to have multiple options, including vegan, halal, healthy, and junk food for students. However, this can often lead to food waste. Junk food is unhealthy, but most students like it and food isn’t wasted a lot. On the other hand, not a lot of teenagers choose to eat vegetables and fruits. Food waste would be a huge problem if schools decide to serve healthier menus, and even worse, fresh fruit and vegetables are way more expensive than junk food and fast food, which not many educational districts can provide for.

— Jimin, Seoul

Students either look forward to school lunch or despise it, both breakfast and lunch: the school offers various options for one to choose from. However, within the options, they are not the best in a healthy manner. Therefore schools should consider serving healthier food to an extent. The reason is that students may complain about the lack of flavor, low salt, etc but in the long run it would be more beneficial to one’s health. A well-balanced mixture of a lunch tray that serves both nutrients and salt would be amazing and satisfy students.

— Valeria, John H. Francis Polytechnic High School

Schools should serve healthier food choices but not remove any of students’ favorite food options. Healthier food choices should increase since approximately 19.7% of children are obese. With the food provided, schools should set the demonstration of a healthy diet however not remove students’ favorite food choices. With healthier food choices for their bodies, the students will have the nutrients and the energy they need to learn since with unhealthy food, the children can have stomach aches and a lack of energy, which would affect them in their education, so I believe they should serve healthy options for students.

— Jose, Sun Valley

Several said teaching students about nutrition and letting them have a say in the menu would help them make healthier choices.

I have a mixed opinion about this topic. While I do believe promoting better health and nutrition among students is important, respecting students’ preferences is also important. Schools can introduce healthier foods slowly and involve students in the process. By finding ways to make healthy foods appealing and enjoyable, schools can help students develop a taste for nutritious foods they will carry into adulthood.

— Anngelin, Dallas, Texas

If I were responsible for keeping food waste to a minimum, step one would be to listen to students and serve what they like. There’s no reason to throw the food away if it is good. It’s impossible to cater to every student, so why not make sides available? If people, for example, like the breadstick that comes with the macaroni and cheese, why not give students the option to order a side and nothing else? This also works if someone hates the breadstick but loves the macaroni. Giving students options is a great way to prevent unnecessary food waste.

— Tate, Julia R. Masterman, Philadelphia, PA

I feel that throughout my school many food ends up getting wasted because of the lack of attention brought to people with regards to healthy eating. Because so many fruits and vegetables get thrown out on the daily at my school, many people are getting fueled on the unhealthy salt and sugar-filled items that are getting processed in places that aren’t good for you. If there were to be teachings about why it is so important to keep fruits and veggies in your day to day diet, it can really benefit you a lot. Also, lots of people around the world can afford healthy food items, so if schools were to start to make meals more healthy, it could really help not only American obesity but also help people get new healthy eating habits.

— Maddie, Connecticut

Educating students about the benefits of a low-salt, low-sugar diet and introducing flavorful alternatives could help promote acceptance of the new guidelines. Ultimately, it will be important for schools to engage with students, gather feedback, and involve them in the process of creating nutritious and appealing menu options to encourage healthier eating habits.

— Nebeyu, Greenbelt Middle

Students also told us what’s working in their own school cafeterias.

As a student attending public school, I was made aware of how the federal government regulated schools to follow specific nutritional guidelines, such as the healthy eating plate, which depicts a perfectly balanced meal consisting of ½ vegetables and fruits, ¼ carbohydrates, and ¼ protein. Most of the schools I attended followed this guideline. However, after switching to private schools, I noticed that their meal plans were more lenient, as they had more freedom to do what they wanted … At my school, our salad bar is very successful. Students can customize their salad with fresh fruits and vegetables that create a great food source that brings the body energy. Therefore, schools should have a balanced meal that includes healthy options, without eliminating all of students’ favorites. I personally think the healthy eating plate is a good guide to see if your main lunch source is pulling from all food types and energy sources.

— Sophia, St. Louis

I believe eating healthy, even if it is forced, is important. My previous school food, for example, had many options, including Asian, western, a salad bar, and different bread options. This helped students choose what kind of food they wanted. For breakfast and dinner, they balanced the sodium levels by giving under-seasoned food for breakfast if the dinner was going to have salty or sugary food. To help parents and students know how much sodium they are taking that day, they posted pictures with the sodium levels for every meal.

— Melinda, Korea

And what needs improvement.

I believe schools can improve on healthier food options. There are students who buy lunch everyday, some who don’t have a choice in this, so having higher quality food for them would be beneficial. I’ve seen plenty of questionable food in my cafeteria and they’re usually the healthier options. No student actively wants to eat a rotting salad or a fruit cup that has been sitting out for a few hours; it’s gross. So these usually get thrown away. Burgers, pizza, fries, etc. are always going to be served in school cafeterias. Those foods could also be improved with their high sodium levels. But, if schools offer good quality, healthier options, students may actually choose them. Overall, school lunches are tolerable in their current state, but I’m sure there can be steps taken to improve them.

— Ren, New York

To be honest, I am not completely satisfied with the food at my school. In our dining room, so-called “healthy food” is presented but, in my opinion, it cannot be called healthy. For example, let’s take the same chicken Caesar salad, which has the same fried patty that is served in burgers. The fruits that are presented are often of very questionable freshness. Also, compared to unhealthy food, the amount of healthy food is simply scant, so most students choose standard items: such as pizza, burgers, French fries and nuggets. I have nothing against it, but I don’t think it’s a good diet for every day, especially if you have lunch in the third period like me. I haven’t had lunch at school for a long time and I just take snacks from home, however, considering that we spend eight hours at school, I am always very hungry in the last periods. I wish my school had more healthy food options, even if it tasted worse than regular food.

— Sabrina, Hinsdale, IL

I believe that schools should continue to have healthy food options but improve on what they have. Some of the healthier options my school provides are fruits or small salads that are close to rotting. I think that the food that they give most times just ends up in the trash because the food is about to go bad and people don’t want to eat fruits that have gone brown or lettuce that is soggy. I also believe that if our school has to provide healthy options to students, they should also serve vegan/vegetarian options. Our school does have salads but they almost always have chicken or cheese in them and they aren’t nearly big enough to fill someone. I believe schools should provide free healthy options for students but improve the quality of food that they serve.

Learn more about Current Events Conversation here and find all of our posts in this column .

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Ukraine war latest: Russian forces take control of village in Kharkiv region - defence ministry

Russian troops are continuing to advance in the Kharkiv region - with the defence ministry claiming it had taken control of 12 settlements in a week.

Sunday 19 May 2024 00:10, UK

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• Russia takes control of village in Kharkiv - defence ministry
• Ukraine's divisive draft law comes into force | At least 30 Ukrainians have died crossing river to avoid
• Putin concludes trip to China with veiled reference to West
• Two civilians killed while evacuating city
• Analysis: Great power politics on display in China visit
• Live reporting by  Jess Sharp  and (earlier)  Josephine Franks

We're pausing our coverage of the Ukraine war for the moment.

Scroll through the blog below to catch up on today's developments.

A decorated Ukrainian pilot has been killed in action, the country's 831st tactical aviation brigade has announced. 

In a post on Facebook, the brigade said First Deputy Commander of the Aviation Squadron Lieutenant Colonel Denis Vasilyuk, was killed during a combat mission.

"We lost not just a pilot, but a reliable combat brother, a friend and just a wonderful and bright man," it added. 

He flew dozens of missions since the beginning of the war has has been awarded the Order For Courage medal. 

The medal is handed to members of the military for individual courage and heroism while rescuing people or valued materials while endangering their own life. 

A Ukrainian missile has been destroyed over Belgorod, the Russian defence ministry has said. 

It said the Tochka-U tactical missile was launched at around 9.15pm local time (7.15pm UK time). 

"Duty air defence systems destroyed one tactical missile over the territory of the Belgorod region," it added. 

Belgorod has been targeted several times, with attacks increasing in recent weeks. 

Volodymyr Zelenskyy has praised his forces' successes during his nightly address. 

The Ukrainian president said his troops had grown in confidence, particularly in the Kharkiv region. 

However, his message comes after Russia's defence ministry said its forces captured the village of Starytsia in the Kharkiv region earlier today - just eight days after a new Russian push in the area began.

"The occupier is losing its infantry and equipment, a tangible loss, even though, just as in 2022, it was counting on a quick advance on our land," Mr Zelenskyy said, referring to Russia's initial invasion of Ukraine in February of that year.

In the eastern Donetsk region around Chasiv Yar, a city seen as a key target in Russia's campaign, Mr Zelenskyy said Ukrainian forces had repelled a Russian assault. 

"Our soldiers destroyed more than 20 units of the occupier's armoured vehicles," he added.

Russia has claimed to have captured a "very valuable" British-made vehicle from the battlefield. 

In a post on Telegram, the defence ministry said the FV104 Samaritan evacuation vehicle has been taken but needs to be repaired. 

It claimed it was big enough to evacuate four people and carry a crew of two. 

It said it was "very valuable" and could be used as a "rare collection exhibit". 

It shared a video of the vehicle but Sky News has not been able to verify if it is a FV104 Samaritan. 

Five people have been injured in a Russian shelling attack in Kharkiv, the Ukrainian national police has said. 

A 13-year-old girl and 16-year-old boy are among those hurt, it said. 

The Russian military attacked the city at around 30pm, it added, with several hits recorded on residential buildings. 

"As a result of shelling, five civilians were injured, and civilian infrastructure was also damaged," police official Oleksandr Kobylev said. 

"Currently, two minor children are known to have suffered minor injuries. Necessary medical assistance is provided to all victims." 

A Russian attack plane has been shot down, a Ukrainian army brigade has reported. 

The 110th separate brigade said the Su-25 had been destroyed in Donetsk. 

It said it was the fourth Su-25 to have been shot down, adding it will keep issuing "flaming fines" to Russia for crossing into Ukraine. 

"Our sky will become hell for the occupant pilots. Our squad number will be a nightmare for them," it added. 

A Ukrainian sergeant has been stabbed in the hand by a civilian, the country's ground forces has said. 

In a statement posted on Facebook, the army said the attacker was detained and has been charged with attempted murder and obstructing the armed forces. 

The attack took place in the city of Sinelnikove, in the central Dnipro region, earlier today.

"A civilian committed an armed assault with cold weapons (knife) on the sergeant of the Armed Forces of Ukraine," the statement said. 

The sergeant, who worked for the territorial recruitment and social support centre, has been provided with "all the necessary medical care", it added. 

In Ukraine's second largest city, airstrikes have become a daily occurrence as intense battles continue. 

Russian troops have been pushing ahead with a ground offensive that opened a new front in northeastern Kharkiv region in recent days, putting further pressure on Kyiv's overstretched military. 

After weeks of probing, Moscow launched the new push knowing that Ukraine suffered personnel shortages, and that its forces have been spread thin in the northeast.

Two people were killed after Russian airstrikes hit Kharkiv on Friday as Ukrainian troops fought to halt Russian advances in the region.

The airstrikes targeted Ukraine's second-largest city during the daytime, injuring 25 people and killing two, according to Kharkiv's mayor Ihor Terkhov.

On Thursday, the air alarm sounded for more than 16 hours, a record since the beginning of the military campaign by Russia.

Here are some of the latest pictures from the city: 

Ukrainian drone attacks on Russian power facilities in early 2024 disrupted 14% of Russia's oil refining capacity, according to the US Department of Defence.

The strikes pushed up domestic oil prices by 20-30% and forced Russia to halt exports to focus on meeting domestic demand, a report from the Pentagon’s intelligence agency said.

But it caused only a "negligible disruption" to the electricity supply for Russian civilians and the military, because of Russia's "robust generation capacity" and the level of power in the grid. 

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Russia-Ukraine war: Zelenskiy replaces special operations chief for second time in six months – as it happened

Move comes after deputy prime minister and agriculture minister dismissed by government

• 9 May 2024 Closing summary
• 9 May 2024 Zelenskiy replaces special operations chief for second time in six months
• 9 May 2024 Ukraine says attack drone flew 'record' 1,500km
• 9 May 2024 Cameron: UK must have the 'courage to act'
• 9 May 2024 Afternoon summary
• 9 May 2024 Western military trainers could go to Ukraine, Lithuania minister says
• 9 May 2024 Ukraine agriculture minister Mykola Solsky dismissed by parliament
• 9 May 2024 David Cameron: west has not learned lesson of Ukraine and must get tougher
• 9 May 2024 Putin accuses 'arrogant' west of risking global conflict and says forces are at 'combat readiness'
• 9 May 2024 Ukraine parliament votes to dismiss deputy prime minister Oleksandr Kubrakov
• 9 May 2024 Ukraine air attack on Belgorod injures eight, governor says
• 9 May 2024 Russia to mark second world war Victory Day as relations with west spiral towards crisis

Zelenskiy replaces special operations chief for second time in six months

Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskiy replaced the commander of his special forces on Thursday, the second time in half a year that he has changed the head of the unit which operates in Moscow-occupied territories.

The dismissal of colonel Serhiy Lupanchuk and appointment of brigadier general Oleksandr Trepak in his place was announced in two decrees on the president’s website that provided no explanation for the move, Reuters reported.

Since 2014, Trepak has been actively participating in defence operations in east Ukraine against Russian-backed separatists. He was engaged in leading the push to repel the Russian assault on Donetsk airport, one of the biggest operations back then.

The Ukrainian military’s chain of command has been changed at different levels since February when Zelenskiy replaced his top commander, Valeriy Zaluzhnyi, with then-ground forces commander Oleksandr Syrskyi in a major shake up.

At the time, Zelenskiy said a new military leadership was taking control of the armed forces and promised to “reboot” the system by bringing in experienced commanders who understood the daily needs of the troops.

Closing summary

Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskiy replaced the commander of his special forces on Thursday, the second time in half a year that he has changed the head of the unit which operates in Moscow-occupied territories. The dismissal of colonel Serhiy Lupanchuk and appointment of brigadier general Oleksandr Trepak in his place was announced in two decrees on the president’s website that provided no explanation for the move, Reuters reported.

The West needs to undermine and expose “the malign networks that Russia uses to spread its lies,” according to Britain’s foreign secretary, David Cameron. In his first major speech since taking up the role, he said over the last five years Britain had invested in that project by backing free media and supporting independent journalism in places like Georgia and Moldova, “where Russia seeks to bully and manipulate politics.”

A Ukrainian attack drone struck a Russian oil processing plant in the Bashkiria region on Thursday after flying a “record” distance of 1,500 km (932.06 miles) in an operation conducted by the SBU security service, a Kyiv intelligence source told Reuters. The drone hit a catalytic cracking unit at the Gazprom Neftekhim Salavat oil processing, petrochemical and fertiliser complex, the source said. Russia confirmed the fact of damage at the plant earlier, but said the facility was functioning as usual.

President Volodymyr Zelenskiy has said that Ukraine could stop Russian forces advancing in the east if allied countries increased the supply of arms. The Ukrainian leader made the comments at a joint news conference in Kyiv with the European Parliament’s visiting president Roberta Metsola, more than two years after Russia launched its full-scale invasion.

Russian president Vladimir Putin said Russian and Belarus’ forces had started joint preparations for tactical nuclear weapons drills , Interfax news agency reported on Thursday.

President Volodymyr Zelenskiy on Thursday appointed former army chief Valeriy Zaluzhnyi, who led Ukraine’s defence in the first two years of Moscow’s full-scale invasion, as Kyiv’s ambassador to the United Kingdom. The decree was published on the presidential website. Zaluzhnyi was earlier named a “Hero of Ukraine”, Reuters reported. Ukraine has not had an ambassador in London since Zelenskiy dismissed former envoy Vadym Prystaiko in July 2023 after he publicly criticised the president.

Russia president Vladimir Putin has accused the West of risking a global conflict and said no one would be allowed to threaten the world’s biggest nuclear power as Russia marked the Soviet Union’s victory over Nazi Germany in World War Two. As Russian troops advance against Ukraine’s Western-backed forces, Putin accused “arrogant” Western elites of forgetting the decisive role played by the Soviet Union in defeating Nazi Germany, and of stoking conflicts across the world, Reuters reported.

A Ukrainian air attack on Russia’s Belgorod region injured eight people and damaged scores of residential buildings and cars, the governor of the region bordering with Ukraine said on Thursday. Among the wounded is an 11-year-old girl who was taken to a hospital, Vyacheslav Gladkov, the governor said on the Telegram messaging app, Reuters reported. About 34 flats in 19 apartment buildings were damaged, as well as three dozen cars in the city of Belgorod, the region’s administrative centre, Gladkov added.

Drones launched by the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) struck two oil depots near the town of Anapa in Russia’s southern Krasnodar region causing large-scale fires, a Ukrainian intelligence source told Reuters on Thursday. The source said the oil depots were used as transshipment points to supply fuel to Russian troops in the nearby occupied peninsula of Crimea.

Meanwhile, Ukraine’s parliament has voted to dismiss deputy prime minister Oleksandr Kubrakov, a key government figure who has overseen the wartime reconstruction effort and championed efforts to set up a vital Black Sea shipping lane, Ukrainian lawmaker Yaroslav Zheleznyak said on Telegram. The 41-year-old’s dismissal comes amid plans to break up his powerful ministry into two separate government portfolios.

Ukraine’s parliament has dismissed agriculture minister Mykola Solsky who tendered his resignation in late April as he faces an investigation into alleged involvement in illegal acquisition of state-owned land, Ukrainian lawmaker Yaroslav Zheleznyak said on Telegram. Solsky, 44, has denied the allegations, Reuters reported.

Ukraine’s air defence systems destroyed 17 out of 20 attack drones that Russia launched targeting Ukraine’s territory, Ukraine’s air force said. The drones were destroyed over the Odesa region in Ukraine’s south, the air force said on the Telegram messaging app.

Lithuania’s foreign minister has raised the prospect of an ad hoc coalition of western countries sending military training personnel into Ukraine backed by ground-based air defence, days after Russia took an increasingly strident tone against what it sees as the threat of deeper western involvement in the war. Speaking to the Guardian after meeting his British counterpart, David Cameron, in London, Gabrielius Landsbergis also backed the British foreign secretary for saying that Ukraine could use British-made weapons against Russia; remarks that alongside Emmanuel Macron refusing to rule out western troops in Ukraine prompted the Kremlin to threaten UK assets and order a tactical nuclear training exercise.

Ukraine plans to double electricity imports on Thursday after a powerful Russian attack on Ukraine’s energy system, the energy ministry said. The imports are expected to rise to 16,699 megawatt hours (Mwh) versus 7,600 Mwh on Wednesday, the ministry said on the Telegram messaging app, Reuters reported. “Today, at Ukraine’s request, emergency electricity supplies have already been made from Poland, Romania and Slovakia,” the ministry said.

South Korea’s position remains it will not supply lethal weapons to any country, president Yoon Suk Yeol said on Thursday, when asked if Seoul was prepared to help Ukraine defend itself against Russia. Yoon also said his government intended to continue managing relations with Moscow to “pursue economic cooperation and mutual benefits” even though the two countries’ ties have become “uncomfortable” since the start of the war in Ukraine.

That’s it from the Ukraine live blog for today. Thanks for following along.

President Volodymyr Zelenskiy has said that Ukraine could stop Russian forces advancing in the east if allied countries increased the supply of arms.

The Ukrainian leader made the comments at a joint news conference in Kyiv with the European Parliament’s visiting president Roberta Metsola, more than two years after Russia launched its full-scale invasion.

Russia has been making small but steady territorial gains in the east of the country since the start of the year, with Ukraine’s forces depleted and weapons and ammunition running perilously low.

“We are putting maximum pressure on our partners to increase weapon deliveries,” Zelenskiy said at an open air briefing in the centre of the capital.

“If the delivery of weapons is increased, we will be able to stop (Russian forces) in the east, where they have the initiative.”

As he spoke, air raid sirens started to blare, a reminder of the threat of Russian missile and drone attacks which have intensified across the country, causing power outages for hundreds of thousands of civilians.

President Volodymyr Zelenskiy on Thursday appointed former army chief Valeriy Zaluzhnyi, who led Ukraine’s defence in the first two years of Moscow’s full-scale invasion, as Kyiv’s ambassador to the United Kingdom.

The decree was published on the presidential website. Zaluzhnyi was earlier named a “Hero of Ukraine”, Reuters reported.

Ukraine has not had an ambassador in London since Zelenskiy dismissed former envoy Vadym Prystaiko in July 2023 after he publicly criticised the president.

Zaluzhnyi is very popular among many Ukrainians for leading the army in the first hours of Russia’s invasion and for planning a counteroffensive that helped liberate significant swathes of territory seized by Moscow.

Ukraine says attack drone flew 'record' 1,500km

A Ukrainian attack drone struck a Russian oil processing plant in the Bashkiria region on Thursday after flying a “record” distance of 1,500 km (932.06 miles) in an operation conducted by the SBU security service, a Kyiv intelligence source told Reuters.

The drone hit a catalytic cracking unit at the Gazprom Neftekhim Salavat oil processing, petrochemical and fertiliser complex, the source said. Russia confirmed the fact of damage at the plant earlier, but said the facility was functioning as usual.

More images and reports are coming in from Russia’s events to mark victory in the Second World War.

Although the US and UK ambassadors did not attend, AP reports that Vladimir Putin was joined by other dignitaries and presidents of several former Soviet nations along with a few other Moscow allies, including the leaders of Cuba, Guinea-Bissau and Laos.

Many observers see Putin’s focus on World War II as part of his efforts to revive the USSR’s clout and prestige and his reliance on Soviet practices, AP adds. “It’s the continuous self-identification with the USSR as the victor of Nazism and the lack of any other strong legitimacy that forced the Kremlin to declare ‘denazification’ as the goal of the war,” Nikolay Epplee said in a commentary for Carnegie Russia Eurasia Center.

Cameron said Britain had imposed unprecedented sanctions against Russia and was continuing to call on allies to maintain military support for Ukraine .

“To persuade we need to be active,” he added, referring to trips he had recently undertaken to central Asia, saying that potential partners all over the world needed to be told they could be helped to make a choice to “be more open, more independent”

Cameron also announced a new £1m programme for the British Council to teach English to Ukrainian civil servants, saying that Britain should also not hold back on championing the language around the world.

Some reaction and analysis is coming through from those who eager to pick up on policy nuances from the speech, which happened to go ahed with some embarrassing technical glitche s.

Lord Cameron explicitly linking foreign, immigration, and economic policy in his speech this morning - the whole country needs to share in the benefits of globalisation, foreign policy is about prosperity too pic.twitter.com/drfXjpCy5z — Olivia O'Sullivan (@LivJOSullivan) May 9, 2024

Cameron himself had also tweeted a ‘speed version’ of the speech

Cameron was one of the biggest champions behind overthrowing Gaddafi in Libya, resulting in it becoming a failed state. David Cameron’s foreign policy single handily led to a country reinstating slavery and more than 4 million refugees pouring into Europe. Shut up David. https://t.co/bTdSU4HfbT — Ryan James Girdusky (@RyanGirdusky) May 9, 2024

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