data on tourism in egypt

International tourism, number of arrivals - Egypt, Arab Rep.

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This article also features in The Report: Egypt 2020 . Read more about this report and view purchase options in our online store.

Tourism From The Report: Egypt 2020 View in Online Reader

After years of recovery following the 2011 revolution, Egypt is once again a sought-after tourist destination. In 2019 the sector contributed LE496.4bn ($30.6bn) to GDP, representing around 9.3% of the total, a 0.2% increase on the previous year. Although the spread of Covid-19 significantly impacted the industry in the first half of 2020, it is expected that growth will resume in 2021. Rising visitor numbers will be supported by the construction of Capital International Airport, which will serve the new capital city starting in late 2020 or early 2021. In addition, new flight routes are expected to open, connecting the country’s resorts and archaeological sites in order to draw in more leisure tourists, which account for around 86% of total visitor spending. It is hoped that the move to establish Egypt as a world leader in antiquities tourism, alongside the development of traditional sun-and-sea offerings, will reinvigorate the sector.

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Steady progress: comprehensive reform and investment in infrastructure support long-term growth obg plus.

After years of recovery following the decrease in tourism that resulted from the 2011 revolution, Egypt is once again attracting international visitors, with annual growth for 2020 projected in double figures. Although the spread of the Covid-19 pandemic significantly impacted the global tourism industry throughout the first half of 2020, it is expected that the growth seen in Egypt’s tourism segment in recent years will likely resume in 2021. Structure & Oversight In 2019 the structure…

Room for more: Investment in hotel infrastructure and a focus on religious tourism are set to boost international arrivals OBG plus

Infrastructure investment is a key pillar under reforms put forward by the Ministry of Tourism and Antiquity (MoTA) in 2018. These reforms recognise the need to develop existing infrastructure and increase overall capacity. Tourist arrivals have risen steadily in recent years, reaching 12.6m in 2019. Although visitor numbers in the first half of 2020 were impacted by the spread of the Covid-19 pandemic, international tourism is expected to resume growth in 2021. Public Investment Identifying…

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Egypt's tourism revenues jump 25.7 percent in the second half of 2022, cbe.

Egypt Today staff

Thu, 04 May 2023 - 01:06 GMT

The Central Bank of Egypt published data revealing that Egypt’s tourism revenues recorded $7.3 billion jumping to 25.7 percent during the second half of 2022.

Egypt’s tourist numbers witnessed an overall growth of 33 percent from the start of the year up to April 2023. Egypt is targeting 15 million tourists in 2023, Amr El-Kady, CEO of Egyptian Tourism Promotion Board, said in an interview with CNBC Arabia.

Egypt's tourism revenues jumped by 25.7 percent during the second half of 2022 to record $7.3 billion, according to data published by the Central Bank of Egypt (CBE) yesterday.

The improvement in tourism revenues is due to the increase in the number of tourist nights by 27.2 percent on an annual basis, to record about 78.4 million nights, and the increase in the number of tourists coming to Egypt by 27.5 percent, to reach about 6.8 million tourists.

In a previous statement, Egypt’s Prime Minister emphasized the Egypt’s commitment to achieving the new budget targets, especially in reaching an initial surplus of GDP and reducing the budget deficit in line with the planned ratios, while expanding the social safety net and addressing the effects of economic challenges.

Earlier this year, the Egyptian Cabinet announced that the tourism sector would be included in the initiative to support the productive sectors, which currently includes the industrial and agricultural sectors, and allocated LE 10 billion for it, bringing the total investment made available through the initiative to LE 160 billion.

Central Bank of Egypt

Egypt’s share of global tourism grew by 33% in 2023: Minister

Ahram online , sunday 21 jan 2024.

Egypt’s share of global tourism grew by 33 percent in 2023 compared to four years prior, recording 1.2 percent in 2023, up from 0.9 percent in 2019, Minister of Tourism and Antiquities Ahmed Issa told a senate session on Sunday.

Issa said Egypt is pressing ahead with plans to enhance hotel capacity nationwide to meet the projected accommodation demands in the coming years as it seeks to increase the number of incoming tourists to 30 million by 2028.

The country has increased the number of hotel rooms to 220,000 in 2023, up from 200.000 a year prior, said Issa, noting that the increase will help accommodate the tourists that Egypt targets to attract this year.

Incoming tourism to Egypt hit a record-breaking 14.9 million tourists in 2023, including 3.6 million tourists visiting the country in the fourth quarter of 2023.

Egypt's previous record for incoming tourism was 14.7 million tourists in 2010.

Issa said Egypt previously had 23,000 closed hotel rooms, but the figure decreased during 2023 to 19,000 as a result of the increasing demand for Egyptian destinations amid improved economics of hotel establishments.

He encouraged the private sector to pump new investments in the tourism field to provide more hotel rooms, noting that a package of hotel investment incentives would be effectuated within a few days.

The package, Issa said, aims to stimulate the rapid growth of hotel capacity in Egypt and stimulate investors to participate in either completing the construction of or operating these new hotel facilities by early 2026.

The tourism minister said Egypt has a distinctive edge over other global destinations due to its competitive and diversified offers, including cultural, beach and recreational, family, and adventure tourism.

About 20 percent of the existing hotel capacity in Egypt holds green certificates, as has been the case for 44 diving and safari centres, Vice Minister of Tourism and Antiquities for Tourism Affairs Ghada Shalaby said during the same session.

Egypt’s tourism revenues hit a record high of $13.6 billion in FY2022/2023, up 26.8 percent from $10.7 billion in FY2021/2022.

Tourism is one of Egypt’s key sources of foreign currency, along with remittances from Egyptians abroad, the Suez Canal, and foreign direct investments.

The country’s tourism sector received a blow when the Covid-19 pandemic broke out in early 2020.

In FY2020/2021, tourism revenues dropped by 50.71 percent, reaching $4.86 billion, down from $9.86 billion in FY2019/2020, but started to rise again in FY2020/2021.

Tourism in Egypt

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UN Tourism Data Dashboard

The UN Tourism Data Dashboard – provides statistics and insights on key indicators for inbound and outbound tourism at the global, regional and national levels. Data covers tourist arrivals, tourism share of exports and contribution to GDP, source markets, seasonality and accommodation (data on number of rooms, guest and nights)

Two special modules present data on the impact of COVID 19 on tourism as well as a Policy Tracker on Measures to Support Tourism

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International tourist arrivals and receipts and export revenues
International tourism expenditure and departures
Seasonality
Tourism Flows
Accommodation
Tourism GDP and Employment
Domestic Tourism

International Tourism and COVID-19

The pandemic generated a loss of 2.6 billion international arrivals in 2020, 2021 and 2022 combined
Export revenues from international tourism dropped 62% in 2020 and 59% in 2021, versus 2019 (real terms) and then rebounded in 2022, remaining 34% below pre-pandemic levels.
The total loss in export revenues from tourism amounts to USD 2.6 trillion for that three-year period.
International tourist arrivals reached 89% of pre-pandemic levels in 2023 and 97% in Q1 2024

COVID-19: Measures to Support Travel and Tourism

Egypt Tourism Revenues

Tourism revenues in egypt increased to 13.60 usd billion in 2023 from 10.70 usd billion in 2022. tourism revenues in egypt averaged 8.60 usd billion from 2010 until 2023, reaching an all time high of 13.60 usd billion in 2023 and a record low of 3.80 usd billion in 2016. source: central bank of egypt, tourism revenues in egypt is expected to reach 20.00 usd billion by the end of 2024, according to trading economics global macro models and analysts expectations. in the long-term, the egypt tourism revenues is projected to trend around 25.00 usd billion in 2025, according to our econometric models., markets, gdp, labour, prices, money, trade, government, business, consumer, taxes, climate.

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Number of tourist arrivals Egypt 2010-2022

Egypt as a top tourist spot on the continent

A popular destination for europeans, number of tourist arrivals in egypt from 2010 to 2022 (in millions).

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2010 to 2022

Figures have been rounded. The figures have been taken from several publications.

Statistics on " Tourism industry in Egypt "

Share of travel and tourism in Africa’s GDP 2019 -2023
Total contribution of travel and tourism to employment in Africa 2008-2023
Number of international tourist arrivals in Northern Africa 2014-2029
Number of international tourist departures in Northern Africa 2014-2029
Value added of travel and tourism to GDP in Egypt 2019-2023
Share of domestic and international tourist spending Egypt 2019 and 2022, by origin
Share of leisure and business tourist spending Egypt 2019-2022, by segment
Tourist expenditure in Egypt 2008-2022
Employment impacts of travel and tourism Egypt 2012-2023
Number of nights spent by tourists Egypt 2019-2022, by region of origin
Number of international tourist arriving in Egypt 2022, by means of transportation
Inbound tourism expenditure over exports of goods in Egypt 2008-2021
Inbound tourism expenditure over exports of services in Egypt 2008-2021
Outbound tourism expenditure in Egypt 2008-2021
Outbound tourism expenditure over imports of goods in Egypt 2008-2021
Outbound tourism expenditure over imports of services in Egypt 2008-2021
Number of hotels and similar establishments tourism industry Egypt 2008-2019
Number of rooms in hotels and similar establishments Egypt 2008-2019
Hotel room occupancy rate Egypt 2008-2019
Length of stay of international tourists in commercial accommodations Egypt 2007-2019

Other statistics that may interest you Tourism industry in Egypt

Regional overview

Premium Statistic Share of travel and tourism in Africa’s GDP 2019 -2023
Basic Statistic Total contribution of travel and tourism to employment in Africa 2008-2023
Premium Statistic Number of international tourist arrivals in Northern Africa 2014-2029
Premium Statistic Number of international tourist departures in Northern Africa 2014-2029
Premium Statistic Number of international tourist arrivals in selected African countries 2019-2022
Premium Statistic African countries with the largest international tourism receipts 2022

Economic contribution

Basic Statistic Contribution of travel and tourism to GDP in Egypt 2005-2023
Basic Statistic Value added of travel and tourism to GDP in Egypt 2019-2023
Basic Statistic Share of domestic and international tourist spending Egypt 2019 and 2022, by origin
Basic Statistic Share of leisure and business tourist spending Egypt 2019-2022, by segment
Basic Statistic Tourist expenditure in Egypt 2008-2022
Basic Statistic Employment impacts of travel and tourism Egypt 2012-2023

Inbound tourism

Premium Statistic Number of tourist arrivals Egypt 2010-2022
Premium Statistic Number of tourist arrivals Egypt 2019-2022, by region of origin
Premium Statistic Number of nights spent by tourists Egypt 2019-2022, by region of origin
Premium Statistic Number of international tourist arriving in Egypt 2022, by means of transportation

Tourism expenditure

Premium Statistic Inbound tourism expenditure over exports of goods in Egypt 2008-2021
Premium Statistic Inbound tourism expenditure over exports of services in Egypt 2008-2021
Basic Statistic Outbound tourism expenditure in Egypt 2008-2021
Premium Statistic Outbound tourism expenditure over imports of goods in Egypt 2008-2021
Premium Statistic Outbound tourism expenditure over imports of services in Egypt 2008-2021

Hotel sector

Premium Statistic Number of hotels and similar establishments tourism industry Egypt 2008-2019
Premium Statistic Number of rooms in hotels and similar establishments Egypt 2008-2019
Premium Statistic Hotel room occupancy rate Egypt 2008-2019
Premium Statistic Length of stay of international tourists in commercial accommodations Egypt 2007-2019

Further related statistics

Premium Statistic Arrivals of international overnight tourists in China 2017, by origin
Premium Statistic Growth of tourists from Oceania to Japan 2010-2016
Basic Statistic Number of tourist arrivals from the UK to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Basic Statistic Number of tourist arrivals from Turkey to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Basic Statistic Number of tourist arrivals from Portugal to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Premium Statistic Impact of the coronavirus on total tourist arrivals in Italy 2020-2024, by scenario
Basic Statistic Number of tourist arrivals from Poland to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Premium Statistic Brazil: tourist arrivals from South America 2014-2018
Premium Statistic Number of visitors to Western Sydney Australia 2013-2019

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Arrivals of international overnight tourists in China 2017, by origin
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Number of tourist arrivals from Portugal to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Impact of the coronavirus on total tourist arrivals in Italy 2020-2024, by scenario
Number of tourist arrivals from Poland to Luxembourg 2011-2020
Brazil: tourist arrivals from South America 2014-2018
Number of visitors to Western Sydney Australia 2013-2019

Below are all indicators in our database for which this country has a value.

Above-ground forest biomass (2020)
Absolute annual change in primary energy consumption (2022)
Absolute number of deaths from ambient particulate air pollution (2015)
Access to justice for men Regimes of the World (2023)
Access to justice for women Regimes of the World (2023)
Acute hepatitis death rate (2021)
Adjusted net saving (current US dollars) (2021)
Adjusted net savings per capita (2021)
Adolescent birth rate, 15-19 year olds (2019)
Adult literacy rate (2022)
Affordability of cigarettes (2022)
Age dependency ratio (2021)
Agri-environmental policies weighted by their intensity (2022)
Agricultural land per capita (2021)
Agricultural land use (2021)
Agricultural land use per person (2023)
Agricultural output (2019)
Agricultural value added per worker (2019)
Agriculture orientation index for government expenditures (2022)
Air passengers (2021)
Air pollution deaths from fossil fuels (2015)
Alcohol and drug use disorders as a share of total disease burden (2021)
Alcohol and drug use disorders death rate IHME (2021)
Alcohol and drug use disorders death rate WHO (2019)
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths IHME (2021)
Alcohol and drug use disorders deaths WHO (2019)
Alcohol consumption per person WHO (2019)
Amphetamine use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Amphetamine use disorder death rate WHO (2019)
Annual CO₂ emissions (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from cement (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from coal (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from flaring (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from gas (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from land-use change (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from land-use change per capita (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions from oil (2022)
Annual CO₂ emissions including land-use change (2022)
Annual GDP growth World Bank (2021)
Annual area burnt by wildfires by region 2002-2022 (2022)
Annual articles published in scientific and technical journals (2020)
Annual articles published in scientific and technical journals per million people (2018)
Annual broad money growth (2020)
Annual change in coal energy consumption (2022)
Annual change in forest area in % (2020)
Annual change in fossil fuel consumption (2022)
Annual change in gas consumption (2022)
Annual change in hydropower generation (2022)
Annual change in low-carbon energy generation (2022)
Annual change in nuclear energy generation (2022)
Annual change in oil consumption (2022)
Annual change in primary energy consumption (2022)
Annual change in renewable energy generation (2022)
Annual change in solar and wind energy generation (2022)
Annual change in solar energy generation (2022)
Annual change in wind energy generation (2022)
Annual death rate from all causes (2021)
Annual freshwater withdrawals (2020)
Annual growth of GDP per capita World Bank (2022)
Annual growth of GDP per employed person (2022)
Annual growth of exports of goods and services (2021)
Annual growth of general government final consumption expenditure (2021)
Annual growth of imports of goods and services (2021)
Annual growth of the gross capital formation (2021)
Annual incidence rate of HIV (2022)
Annual new cases of neonatal tetanus per million people (2022)
Annual number of objects launched into space (2023)
Annual patent applications (2021)
Annual patent applications per million people (2020)
Annual percentage change in CO₂ emissions (2022)
Annual percentage change in coal energy consumption (2022)
Annual percentage change in fossil fuel consumption (2022)
Annual percentage change in gas consumption (2022)
Annual percentage change in hydropower generation (2022)
Annual percentage change in low-carbon energy generation (2022)
Annual percentage change in oil consumption (2022)
Annual percentage change in renewable energy generation (2022)
Annual percentage change in solar and wind energy generation (2022)
Annual percentage change in solar energy generation (2022)
Annual percentage change in wind energy generation (2022)
Annual private investment in artificial intelligence CSET (2021)
Annual scholarly publications on artificial intelligence (2022)
Annual temperature anomalies (2024)
Antibiotic usage in livestock (2020)
Anxiety disorders prevalence (2021)
Apple production (2022)
Aquaculture production (2021)
Arable land needed to produce a fixed quantity of crops (2021)
Arable land use per person (2021)
Armed forces personnel (2020)
Armed forces personnel as a share of the total labor force (2020)
Armed forces personnel as a share of total population (2018)
Asthma prevalence (2021)
Augmented Human Development Index (2020)
Augmented Human Development Index (excluding income) (2020)
Automated teller machines (ATMs) (2021)
Average HDL cholesterol levels age-standardized (2018)
Average cost of multi drug-resistant tuberculosis treatment (2022)
Average learning outcomes (2020)
Average length of stay of international visitors (2019)
Average non-HDL cholesterol levels age-standardized (2018)
Average number of years living with disability or disease (2016)
Average years of schooling (2020)
Average years of schooling Prados de la Escosura (2020)
Average years of schooling UNDP (2022)
Average years of schooling for men (2017)
Average years of schooling for women (2017)
Banana production (2022)
Banana yields (2022)
Barley production (2022)
Barley yields (2022)
Basic state functions score BTI (2023)
Beach litter (2018)
Bean production (2022)
Bean yields (2022)
Beef production (2022)
Beer consumption per person (2019)
Bipolar disorder prevalence (2021)
Birth rate UN (2021)
Bribery incidence for firms (2020)
Bribery prevalence (2015)
Broad money to total reserves ratio (2020)
Burden of disease IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Burden of disease IHME, crude (2021)
Burden of disease WHO (2019)
CO₂ emissions embedded in trade (2021)
CO₂ emissions from aviation (2018)
CO₂ emissions from domestic air travel (2018)
CO₂ emissions from international aviation (2018)
CO₂ emissions from transport (2020)
Cancer death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Cancer incidence (2021)
Capture fishery production (2021)
Carbon intensity of electricity generation (2023)
Carbon intensity of energy production (2022)
Carbon intensity: CO₂ emissions per dollar of GDP (2018)
Cattle meat per animal (2022)
Census based on population register recently completed (2015)
Central government expenditure as share of GDP (2015)
Cereal production (2022)
Cereal yields (2022)
Change in the consumption of ozone-depleting substances (2021)
Change in total mangrove area (2020)
Chicken meat production (2022)
Chicken meat yield per animal (2022)
Child deaths per year (2021)
Child homicide rate WHO Mortality Database (2019)
Child mortality by income level of country (2021)
Child mortality rate IHME, GBD (2019)
Child mortality rate UN IGME (2021)
Child mortality rate UN WPP (2021)
Child mortality rate Long-run data; Gapminder & UN IGME (2021)
Child mortality rate UN IGME with SDG target (2021)
Children living with HIV (2021)
Children orphaned due to AIDS deaths (2022)
Chlorophyll-a deviation from the global average (2022)
Chronic respiratory diseases death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Chronic respiratory diseases death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Civil liberties index EIU (2023)
Civil liberties rating Freedom House (2023)
Civil liberties score Freedom House (2023)
Civil rights score BTI (2023)
Civil society participation index V-Dem (2023)
Coal consumption (2022)
Coal production Long-run series (2016)
Coal production per capita (2016)
Cocaine use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Cocaine use disorder death rate WHO (2019)
Cocoa bean consumption per person (2021)
Commercial bank branches (2021)
Common good justifications score V-Dem (2023)
Competitive elections Lexical Index (2022)
Competitiveness of executive recruitment score Polity (2018)
Competitiveness of political participation score Polity (2018)
Completion rate of lower-secondary education (2021)
Completion rate of primary education (2019)
Completion rate of upper-secondary education (2019)
Condom use among men who have sex with men (2015)
Confidence in the United Nations (2022)
Congenital birth defect mortality rates in children under-5 (2021)
Constraints on the executive score Polity (2018)
Consumer price index (2022)
Consumption of ozone-depleting substances (2021)
Consumption-based CO₂ emissions (2021)
Consumption-based carbon intensity (2018)
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise (2022)
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise from agriculture and land use (2022)
Contribution to global mean surface temperature rise from fossil sources (2022)
Corn production (2022)
Corn yields (2022)
Corruption Perception Index (2018)
Cost of a calorie sufficient diet as a share of average food expenditure (2017)
Cost of a healthy diet as a share of average expenditure on food (2017)
Cost of a nutrient adequate diet as a share of average food expenditure (2017)
Cotton yields (2022)
Countries where armed conflicts took place (2022)
Country has a civil register (2015)
Country has a population register (2015)
Country has a statistical agency (2015)
Country position on nuclear weapons (2023)
Coverage of essential health services IHME (2021)
Coverage of essential health services WHO (2021)
Coverage of wetlands (2017)
Cropland area (2021)
Cropland per person over the long-term (2023)
Crude death rate (2021)
Crude death rate: the share of the population that dies each year WHO (2019)
Crude death rate: the share of the population that dies each year IHME (2021)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from cement (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from coal (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from flaring (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from gas (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from land-use change (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions from oil (2022)
Cumulative CO₂ emissions including land-use change (2022)
Cumulative number of objects launched into space (2023)
Current account balance as a share of GDP (2021)
DALY rates from communicable, neonatal, maternal & nutritional diseases (2021)
DALY rates from injuries (2021)
DALY rates from non-communicable diseases (NCDs) (2021)
Daily cost of a calorie sufficient diet (2017)
Daily cost of a healthy diet (2021)
Daily cost of a nutrient adequate diet (2017)
Daily per capita fat supply (2021)
Daily per capita protein supply (2021)
Daily supply of calories per person (2021)
Days of paid leave for childbirth and early childcare for the father (2023)
Days of paid leave for childbirth and early childcare for the mother (2023)
Death rate attributable to unsafe water, sanitation, and hygiene (2019)
Death rate attributed to ambient air pollution (2019)
Death rate attributed to household air pollution (2019)
Death rate attributed to household and ambient air pollution (2019)
Death rate due to low physical activity IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate due to low physical activity IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate due to road traffic injuries (2019)
Death rate from Alzheimer's IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from Alzheimer's IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from Alzheimer's WHO (2019)
Death rate from HIV/AIDS IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from HIV/AIDS IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from HIV/AIDS WHO (2019)
Death rate from Parkinson's disease IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from Parkinson's disease IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from Parkinson's disease WHO (2019)
Death rate from air pollution (2019)
Death rate from alcohol use disorders IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from alcohol use disorders IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from ambient particulate air pollution Crude (2019)
Death rate from cancer IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from cancer WHO (2019)
Death rate from cancer IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from cancer for 15- to 49-year olds (2021)
Death rate from cardiomyopathy, myocarditis and endocarditis WHO Global Health Estimates, age-standardized, estimated (2019)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, crude, estimated (2019)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized, reported (2019)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, age-standardized, estimated (2019)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases WHO Mortality Database, crude, reported (2019)
Death rate from cardiovascular diseases in 15- to 49-year olds IHME (2021)
Death rate from chronic respiratory diseases IHME (2021)
Death rate from conflict and terrorism IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from conflict and terrorism IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from diabetes IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from diabetes IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from diabetes WHO (2019)
Death rate from diabetes (2019)
Death rate from digestive diseases IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from digestive diseases IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from digestive diseases WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from drowning IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from drowning IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from drowning WHO (2019)
Death rate from drug use disorders for 15- to 49-year olds (2021)
Death rate from falls WHO (2019)
Death rate from falls IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from falls IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from fires and burns IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from fires and burns IHME (2021)
Death rate from fires and burns WHO (2019)
Death rate from high blood sugar IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from high blood sugar IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from hypertension IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from hypertension IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from hypertensive heart diseases WHO (2019)
Death rate from indoor air pollution Age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from indoor air pollution Crude (2019)
Death rate from infectious diseases IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from infectious diseases IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from ischaemic heart disease WHO (2019)
Death rate from lead exposure (2019)
Death rate from liver disease IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from liver disease IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from malaria (2021)
Death rate from malaria IHME data (2021)
Death rate from malaria WHO, Global Health Estimates (2019)
Death rate from malnutrition IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from malnutrition IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from malnutrition WHO (2019)
Death rate from meningitis IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from meningitis IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from meningitis WHO (2019)
Death rate from neonatal preterm birth complications (2021)
Death rate from no access to hand-washing facilities IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from obesity IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from obesity IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from ozone pollution age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from ozone pollution (2019)
Death rate from pneumonia IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from pneumonia IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from pneumonia WHO (2019)
Death rate from pneumonia and other lower respiratory infections in children (2021)
Death rate from poisoning IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from poisoning IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from poisoning WHO (2019)
Death rate from pregnancy or maternal conditions WHO (2019)
Death rate from pregnancy or maternal conditions IHME (2021)
Death rate from respiratory infections IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from respiratory infections IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from rheumatic heart diseases WHO (2019)
Death rate from road accidents for 15- to 49-year olds (2021)
Death rate from road injuries IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from road injuries IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from road injuries WHO (2019)
Death rate from secondhand smoke IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from secondhand smoke IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from smoking IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from smoking IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from stroke IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Death rate from stroke IHME, crude (2021)
Death rate from stroke WHO, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from unintentional poisoning (2019)
Death rate from unsafe sanitation IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from unsafe sex IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from unsafe sex IHME, crude (2019)
Death rate from unsafe water sources IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Death rate from venomous animal contact (2021)
Death rate from venomous snakes (2019)
Death rate in armed conflicts based on where they occurred (2022)
Death rates from alcohol use disorders (2019)
Deaths attributed to drug use IHME (2019)
Deaths attributed to lack of access to handwashing facilities (2019)
Deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation (2019)
Deaths attributed to unsafe water sources (2019)
Deaths due to alcohol use (2019)
Deaths due to high blood sugar (2019)
Deaths due to low physical activity (2019)
Deaths due to measles (2021)
Deaths due to obesity (2019)
Deaths due to unsafe sex (2019)
Deaths from Alzheimer's IHME (2021)
Deaths from Alzheimer's WHO (2019)
Deaths from Parkinson's disease IHME (2021)
Deaths from Parkinson's disease WHO (2019)
Deaths from air pollution (2019)
Deaths from alcohol use disorders IHME (2021)
Deaths from alcohol use disorders WHO (2019)
Deaths from cancer IHME (2021)
Deaths from cancer WHO (2019)
Deaths from chronic respiratory diseases (2021)
Deaths from conflict and terrorism IHME, GBD (2021)
Deaths from cysticercosis (2021)
Deaths from diabetes IHME (2021)
Deaths from diabetes WHO (2019)
Deaths from digestive diseases (2021)
Deaths from drowning IHME (2021)
Deaths from drowning WHO (2019)
Deaths from falls WHO (2019)
Deaths from falls IHME (2021)
Deaths from fires and burns IHME (2021)
Deaths from fires and burns WHO (2019)
Deaths from indoor air pollution (2019)
Deaths from infectious diseases (2021)
Deaths from liver disease (2021)
Deaths from malnutrition IHME (2021)
Deaths from malnutrition WHO (2019)
Deaths from meningitis IHME (2021)
Deaths from meningitis WHO (2019)
Deaths from one-sided violence based on where they occurred (2022)
Deaths from outdoor air pollution (2019)
Deaths from ozone pollution (2019)
Deaths from pneumonia IHME (2021)
Deaths from pneumonia WHO (2019)
Deaths from poisoning IHME (2021)
Deaths from poisoning WHO (2019)
Deaths from road injuries IHME (2021)
Deaths from road injuries WHO (2019)
Deaths from secondhand smoke (2019)
Deaths from venomous animal contact (2021)
Deaths from venomous snakes (2019)
Deaths in armed conflicts based on where they occurred Country-level data (2022)
Deaths in interstate conflicts based on where they occurred (2022)
Deaths in intrastate conflicts based on where they occurred (2022)
Deaths in non-state conflicts based on where they occurred (2022)
Debt service as a share of exports of good and services (2021)
Deliberative democracy index V-Dem (2023)
Deliberative political institutions index V-Dem (2023)
Democracy index Polity (2018)
Democracy index EIU (2023)
Democratic culture index EIU (2023)
Democratic electoral institutions Freedom House (2023)
Democratic features BTI (2023)
Dengue fever deaths (2019)
Dengue fever infections (2021)
Dentistry personnel per 10,000 population (2018)
Depressive disorders prevalence (2021)
Development aid received per capita (2021)
Development assistance as share of government expense (2015)
Diarrheal disease deaths IHME (2021)
Diarrheal disease deaths WHO GHE (2019)
Diarrheal disease episodes (2021)
Diarrheal diseases death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Diarrheal diseases death rate IHME, crude (2021)
Diarrheal diseases death rate WHO (2019)
Direct disaster economic loss (2021)
Direct economic loss attributed to disasters (2021)
Direct economic loss from disasters as a share of GDP (2021)
Direct popular voting index V-Dem (2023)
Disease burden from lead exposure (2019)
Disease burden from particulate pollution (2019)
Disease burden rates from cancers (2021)
Domestic material consumption per capita (2019)
Domestic material consumption per unit of GDP (2019)
Domestic policy free from interference of other states index (2023)
Drowning death rate in children under the age of 5 (2021)
Drug use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Drug use disorder death rate IHME (2021)
Drug use disorder death rate WHO (2019)
Drug use disorder deaths IHME (2021)
Drug use disorder deaths WHO (2019)
Duration of pre-primary education (2019)
Eating disorders prevalence (2021)
Education spending as a share of total government expenditure (2015)
Effective power to govern score BTI (2023)
Egalitarian democracy index V-Dem (2023)
Egalitarian political institutions index V-Dem (2023)
Egg production (2022)
Eggs per bird (2022)
Elected political leaders index (2023)
Elections for government's chief executive Lexical Index (2022)
Elections for legislature Lexical Index (2022)
Electoral democracy Lexical Index (2022)
Electoral democracy Regimes of the World (2023)
Electoral democracy index V-Dem (2023)
Electoral pluralism index EIU (2023)
Electricity as a share of primary energy (2022)
Electricity demand (2023)
Electricity generation (2023)
Electricity generation from coal (2023)
Electricity generation from fossil fuels (2023)
Electricity generation from gas (2023)
Electricity generation from low-carbon sources (2023)
Electricity generation from oil (2023)
Electricity generation from renewables (2023)
Elite consultations score V-Dem (2023)
Emissions-weighted carbon price (2021)
Emissions-weighted carbon price in emissions trading systems (2021)
Employment in food and beverage serving activities per 1,000 people (2015)
Employment in tourism-related industries per 1,000 people (2015)
Energy intensity World Bank (2020)
Energy intensity (2022)
Energy use per person (2022)
Engaged society score V-Dem (2023)
Equal access to power index V-Dem (2023)
Equal resource distribution index V-Dem (2023)
Equal rights protection index V-Dem (2023)
Equality of civil liberties across social groups index (2023)
Equality of political power across social groups index (2023)
Excess nitrogen per hectare of cropland (2014)
Expected share of deaths from non-communicable diseases (2019)
Expected years of schooling (2022)
Export of environmentally sound technologies (2020)
Exported deforestation (2013)
Exposure to particulate matter air pollution (2019)
External debt as a share of GNI (2021)
Farm machinery per unit of agricultural land (2019)
Fatal occupational injury rates (2015)
Female employment-to-population ratio National estimates (2021)
Female employment-to-population ratio Modeled estimates (2022)
Female homicide rate UNODC (2021)
Female homicide victims UNODC (2021)
Female labor force participation rates ILO (2022)
Female youth literacy rate (2022)
Fertility rate: children per woman Gapminder (2024)
Fertility rate: children per woman UN (2021)
Fertility rate: children per woman World Bank (2021)
Fertilizer application rates over the long-run (2014)
Fertilizer consumption (2019)
Fertilizer inputs per unit of agricultural land (2019)
Fertilizer use per capita (2019)
Fertilizer use per hectare of arable land Line chart (2021)
Fertilizer use per hectare of cropland (2021)
Fish and seafood consumption per capita (2021)
Fish and seafood production (2021)
Fish discards (2018)
Food expenditure per person (2022)
Foreign direct investment, net inflows as share of GDP (2022)
Foreign direct investment, net outflows as share of GDP (2022)
Foreign policy free from interference of other states index (2023)
Forest area (2020)
Forest certified for sustainable use (2022)
Fossil fuel consumption By country (2022)
Fossil fuel consumption per capita (2022)
Fossil-fuel subsidies (2021)
Fossil-fuel subsidies as a share of GDP (2021)
Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita (2021)
Free and fair elections Regimes of the World (2023)
Free and fair elections index V-Dem (2023)
Free and fair elections score BTI (2023)
Freedom of association index V-Dem (2023)
Freedom of association score BTI (2023)
Freedom of expression index V-Dem (2023)
Freedom of expression score BTI (2023)
Freshwater withdrawals as a share of internal resources (2020)
Fruit consumption per capita (2021)
Functioning government index EIU (2023)
GDP per capita Penn World Table, constant international-$ (2019)
GDP per capita World Bank, constant international-$ (2022)
GDP per capita World Bank, constant US$ (2022)
GDP per capita Maddison Project Database, constant international-$ (2022)
GDP per capita Prados de la Escosura (2020)
GDP per employed person (2022)
GDP price levels relative to the US (2022)
Gap to reach the target share of people receiving antiretroviral therapy (2022)
Gas consumption (2022)
Gas production (2022)
Gas production per capita (2022)
Gender Development Index (2022)
Gender Inequality Index (2022)
Gender of the chief executive (2023)
Gender of the head of government (2023)
Gender of the head of state (2023)
Gender parity in net enrolment rates in lower-secondary education (2019)
Gender parity in net enrolment rates in primary education (2019)
Gender parity in primary school life expectancy (2019)
Gender parity in youth literacy rates (2022)
Gender ratio for average years of schooling (2020)
Global Hunger Index (2021)
Global meat demand if everyone ate like the average citizen of... (2022)
Global warming: Contributions to the change in global mean surface temperature (2022)
Gold production (2015)
Government expenditure on pre-primary education as share of GDP (2017)
Government expenditure on primary education as share of GDP (2017)
Government expenditure on secondary education as share of GDP (2017)
Government revenues as a share of GDP World Bank (2015)
Government revenues as a share of GDP IMF (2015)
Grape production (2022)
Greenhouse gas emissions (2022)
Greenhouse gas emissions from food systems (2015)
Gross domestic product (GDP) Penn World Table, constant international-$ (2019)
Gross domestic product (GDP) World Bank, constant US$ (2022)
Gross domestic product (GDP) World Bank, constant international-$ (2022)
Gross domestic product (GDP) Maddison Project Database, constant international-$ (2022)
Gross enrolment ratio in pre-primary education (2019)
Gross enrolment ratio in primary education (2022)
Gross enrolment ratio in secondary education (2021)
Gross enrolment ratio in tertiary education (2022)
Gross national income (GNI) per capita World Bank (2022)
Gross national income (GNI) per capita UNDP (2022)
Gross overseas development assistance (ODA) from all donors for scholarships (2021)
Groundnut yields (2022)
HIV expenditure on prevention and treatment (2022)
HIV prevalence UNAIDS (2022)
Has a country already reached SDG target on electricity access? (2021)
Has country already reached SDG target for usage of improved sanitation facilities? (2022)
Has country already reached SDG target on child mortality? (2021)
Has country already reached SDG target on clean cooking fuels? (2021)
Has country already reached SDG target on improved water access? (2022)
Has country already reached SDG target on maternal mortality? (2020)
Health spending as a share of total government expenditure (2021)
Healthcare Access and Quality Index (2015)
Healthy life expectancy WHO GHO data (2019)
Hepatitis B incidence rate (2021)
Homicide rate UNODC (2017)
Homicide rate IHME (2021)
Homicide rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Homicide rate WHO-GHE (2019)
Homicide rate WHO Mortality Database (2019)
Homicide rate WHO Mortality Database, Age-standardized (2019)
Homicide rate for 15- to 49-year olds (2021)
Homicides IHME (2021)
Homicides WHO-GHE (2019)
Homicides UNODC (2017)
Homicides WHO Mortality Database (2019)
Hospital beds per 1,000 people (2017)
Hospitals with cath labs per million people (2019)
Human Development Index (2022)
Human rights index (2023)
Human trafficking victims (2020)
Hydropower generation (2023)
Implementation of integrated water resource management (2020)
Import of environmentally sound technologies (2020)
Imported deforestation (2013)
Imported or exported CO₂ emissions per capita (2021)
Imports of goods and services (2022)
Imports of personal protective equipment per capita (2022)
Incidence of HIV/AIDS IHME data (2021)
Incidence of HIV/AIDS (2021)
Incidence of malaria WHO (2021)
Incidence of malaria IHME (2021)
Incidence of meningitis (2021)
Incidence of tuberculosis IHME (2021)
Incidence of venomous animal contact (2021)
Income inequality: Gini coefficient World Bank (2019)
Income inequality: Gini coefficient (before tax) WID (2022)
Income inequality: Palma ratio (before tax) WID (2022)
Income or consumption share of the richest 10% World Bank (2019)
Income share of the richest 1% (before tax) WID (2022)
Income share of the richest 10% (before tax) WID (2022)
Indicator of food price anomalies (2021)
Individual liberties and equality before the law index (2023)
Industrial water as a share of total water withdrawals (2020)
Industry jobs as a share of total employment (2017)
Inequality in per capita calorie intake (2020)
Infant mortality rate UN IGME (2021)
Infant mortality rate IHME (2019)
Infant mortality rate UN WPP (2021)
Infectious and parasitic diseases death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Inflation of consumer prices (2022)
Injuries from terrorist attacks (2021)
Insecticide use (2021)
Installed solar energy capacity (2022)
Installed wind energy capacity (2022)
Intensity of multidimensional poverty Harmonized over time estimates (2014)
International finance received for clean energy (2021)
International financial support to infrastructure (2021)
International one-day trips (2019)
International one-day trips per 1,000 people (2019)
International tourist trips (2019)
International tourist trips per 1,000 people (2019)
International trips for business and professional reasons (2019)
International trips for personal reasons (2019)
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella death rate in children under five (2021)
Invasive non-typhoidal salmonella deaths in children under five (2021)
Judicial constraints on the executive index (2023)
Justified political positions score V-Dem (2023)
LGBT+ rights index (2019)
Labor share of gross domestic product (GDP) (2020)
Landline Internet subscriptions (2022)
Landline Internet subscriptions per 100 people (2022)
Landline phone subscriptions (2022)
Landline phone subscriptions per 100 people (2022)
Legislative constraints on the executive index (2023)
Lettuce yields (2022)
Level of national compliance with labor rights (2021)
Liberal democracy Regimes of the World (2023)
Liberal democracy index V-Dem (2023)
Liberal political institutions Regimes of the World (2023)
Liberal political institutions index (2023)
Life expectancy over the long-run (2021)
Life expectancy WHO GHO data (2019)
Life expectancy UN WPP data (2021)
Life expectancy Prados de la Escosura (2020)
Life expectancy UNDP (2022)
Life expectancy HMD, UN WPP (2021)
Life expectancy at age 15 (2024)
Life expectancy in men (2021)
Life expectancy in women (2021)
Life expectancy projections (2023)
Lifespan inequality: Gini coefficient in men (2021)
Lifespan inequality: Gini coefficient in women (2021)
Literacy rate (2022)
Literacy rate in adult men (2022)
Literacy rate in adult women (2022)
Low-carbon electricity generation per capita (2023)
Low-carbon energy consumption (2022)
Lower-secondary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index (2019)
Lung cancer death rates in males (2019)
MDG4.A: Child mortality rate (2021)
MDG5.A: Maternal mortality ratio (2020)
Malaria mortality in children (2021)
Male youth literacy rate (2022)
Male-to-female ratio of suicide rate IHME data (2017)
Male-to-female ratio of suicide rate WHO GHE (2019)
Malnutrition: Number of children who are stunted IHME (2016)
Malnutrition: Number of children who are stunted United Nations (2020)
Malnutrition: Number of children who are underweight (2014)
Malnutrition: Number of children who are wasted United Nations (2014)
Malnutrition: Number of children who are wasted IHME (2016)
Malnutrition: Share of children who are stunted IHME (2021)
Manufacturing jobs as a share of total employment (2021)
Maternal mortality ratio (2017)
Maternal mortality ratio IHME (2021)
Maternal mortality ratio WHO GHO data (2020)
Mean body mass index (BMI) in men (2016)
Mean body mass index (BMI) in women (2016)
Mean income or consumption per day 2017 Int-$ (2019)
Mean income or consumption per day 2011 Int-$ (2019)
Meaningful democratic electoral institutions Regimes of the World (2023)
Meat production (2022)
Meat supply per person (2021)
Median income or consumption per day (2019)
Medical doctors per 1,000 people (2019)
Men's universal right to vote Lexical Index (2022)
Meningitis death rate in children (2021)
Mental disorders as a share of total disease burden (2021)
Mental health and substance use disorders death rate WHO (2019)
Mental health and substance use disorders deaths WHO (2019)
Methane emissions (2022)
Methane emissions from agriculture (2020)
Military expenditure (2020)
Military expenditure as a share of GDP SIPRI (2020)
Military expenditure as a share of GDP COW & SIPRI (2016)
Military expenditure per capita (2020)
Military personnel (2016)
Military personnel as a share of total population (2016)
Milk per animal (2022)
Milk production (2022)
Minimum daily requirement of calories (2022)
Mobile phone subscriptions (2022)
Mobile phone subscriptions per 100 people (2022)
Money committed to public-private partnerships for infrastructure (2019)
Monitoring of sustainable tourism (2020)
Monthly temperature anomalies (2021)
Multi-party elections Regimes of the World (2023)
Multi-party elections for government's chief executive Regimes of the World (2023)
Multi-party elections for legislature Regimes of the World (2023)
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) Harmonized over time estimates (2014)
Municipal water as a share of total water withdrawals (2020)
National policy on flu vaccination for older people (2020)
Neonatal asphyxia and trauma mortality rates (2021)
Neonatal mortality rate UN IGME (2021)
Neonatal mortality rate IHME (2019)
Neonatal mortality rate (2021)
Net attendance rate of primary school (2014)
Net electricity imports (2023)
Net electricity imports as a share of electricity demand (2023)
Net enrolment rate, pre-primary, both sexes (2019)
Net official development assistance and official aid received (2021)
Net official development assistance to medical research and basic health sectors (2021)
Net portfolio investment (2021)
New HIV infections averted from prevention of mother-to-child transmission (2022)
New tetanus infection rate (2021)
Nitrogen fertilizer use per hectare of cropland (2021)
Nitrogen inputs per hectare of cropland (2014)
Nitrogen use efficiency (2014)
Nitrous oxide emissions (2022)
Nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture (2020)
Non-fatal occupational injury rates (2016)
Nuclear power generation (2022)
Number of HIV deaths averted from antiretroviral therapy (ART) (2022)
Number of R&D researchers per million people (2021)
Number of agri-environmental policies in place (2022)
Number of air travel trips per capita (2019)
Number of cattle (2022)
Number of child deaths IHME (2019)
Number of child deaths UN IGME (2021)
Number of child deaths from malaria (2021)
Number of child deaths per woman (2021)
Number of companies publishing sustainability reports that meet the minimum reporting requirements (2021)
Number of confirmed cases of tetanus (2022)
Number of confirmed neonatal tetanus cases (2022)
Number of deaths United Nations (2021)
Number of deaths WHO (2019)
Number of deaths IHME (2021)
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS IHME (2021)
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS WHO GHO (2022)
Number of deaths from HIV/AIDS WHO GHE (2019)
Number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases WHO Global Health Estimates, estimated (2019)
Number of deaths from hypertension IHME (2019)
Number of deaths from malaria IHME (2021)
Number of deaths from malaria WHO GHE (2019)
Number of deaths from pneumonia in children under five (2021)
Number of deaths from stroke IHME (2021)
Number of deaths from stroke WHO (2019)
Number of deaths from tetanus (2021)
Number of deaths from tobacco smoking (2019)
Number of deaths from tuberculosis IHME (2021)
Number of income/consumption surveys in the past decade available via the World Bank (2023)
Number of infant deaths UN IGME (2021)
Number of infant deaths IHME (2019)
Number of infant deaths UN WPP (2021)
Number of infant deaths UN via WHO (2021)
Number of local governments with disaster risk reduction strategies (2021)
Number of maternal deaths WHO (2020)
Number of maternal deaths IHME (2016)
Number of neonatal deaths IHME (2019)
Number of neonatal deaths UN IGME (2021)
Number of new HIV infections UNAIDS (2022)
Number of new HIV infections WHO (2022)
Number of new cases of HIV (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against Haemophilus influenzae type B (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against diphtheria, pertussis and tetanus (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against hepatitis B (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against measles (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against polio (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against rubella (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who are not vaccinated against tuberculosis (2021)
Number of one-year-olds who have not received the inactivated polio vaccine (2021)
Number of people employed in agriculture (2019)
Number of people in rural areas without basic handwashing facilities (2017)
Number of people living in extreme poverty Line chart (2019)
Number of people living in urban slum households (2018)
Number of people living with HIV (2021)
Number of people requiring preventive treatment for schistosomiasis (2022)
Number of people requiring treatment against neglected tropical diseases (2021)
Number of people that cannot afford a calorie sufficient diet (2017)
Number of people that cannot afford a healthy diet (2021)
Number of people that cannot afford a nutrient adequate diet (2017)
Number of people treated for trachoma (2022)
Number of people using the Internet (2020)
Number of people who are moderately or severely food insecure (2021)
Number of people who are severely food insecure (2021)
Number of people who are undernourished By country (2021)
Number of people with alcohol or drug use disorders (2021)
Number of people with cancer (2021)
Number of people with cysticercosis per 100,000 (2021)
Number of people with drug use disorders (2021)
Number of people with lymphatic filariasis (2021)
Number of people with multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (2021)
Number of people with river blindness per 100,000 (2021)
Number of people with trachoma per 100,000 (2021)
Number of people without access to clean fuels for cooking (2016)
Number of people without access to electricity By country (2019)
Number of pigs (2022)
Number of poultry birds (2022)
Number of premature deaths from lead exposure (2019)
Number of refugees per 100,000 population, by country of origin (2022)
Number of suicides IHME data (2021)
Number of suicides WHO GHE (2019)
Number of terrorist attacks (2021)
Number of unique plant genetic samples in conservation facilities (2021)
Number of youth deaths (2021)
Number with an alcohol use disorder (2021)
Nurses and midwives per 1,000 people (2018)
Obesity in adults Crude rate (2016)
Ocean science and research funding (2022)
Official entrance age to compulsory education (2019)
Official entrance age to pre-primary education (2019)
Oil consumption (2022)
Oil production (2022)
Oil production per capita (2022)
Oil reserves (2020)
Old-age dependency ratio (2021)
Openness of executive recruitment score Polity (2018)
Opioid use disorder death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Opioid use disorder death rate WHO (2019)
Opioid use disorder death share (2021)
Orange production (2022)
Orange yields (2022)
Out-of-pocket expenditure per capita on healthcare (2020)
Outdoor air pollution death rate (2019)
Ozone (O₃) concentration (2015)
PPP conversion factor for private consumption (2022)
Palm oil imports (2021)
Participatory democracy index V-Dem (2023)
Participatory political institutions index V-Dem (2023)
Passenger-kilometers by air (2021)
Pea production (2022)
Pea yields (2022)
People displaced internally by natural disasters (2021)
People in rural areas not using an improved water source (2022)
People in rural areas not using improved sanitation facilities (2015)
People not using an improved water source (2022)
People not using improved sanitation facilities (2022)
People not using to safely managed sanitation (2022)
People using at least a basic drinking water source (2022)
People without basic handwashing facilities (2020)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic commercial passenger flights (2021)
Per capita CO₂ emissions (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from aviation (2018)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from cement (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from coal (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from commercial aviation, tourism-adjusted (2018)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from domestic aviation (2018)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from flaring (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from gas (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from international aviation (2018)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from international passenger flights, tourism-adjusted Graver & World Bank (2018)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from oil (2022)
Per capita CO₂ emissions from transport (2020)
Per capita CO₂ emissions including land-use change (2022)
Per capita consumption of low-carbon energy (2022)
Per capita consumption-based CO₂ emissions (2021)
Per capita domestic aviation passenger kilometers (2018)
Per capita egg consumption (2021)
Per capita electricity generation (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from fossil fuels (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from gas (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from hydropower (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from nuclear (2022)
Per capita electricity generation from oil (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from renewables (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from solar (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from solar and wind (2023)
Per capita electricity generation from wind (2023)
Per capita energy consumption from coal (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from hydropower (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from nuclear (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from renewables (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from solar (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from solar and wind (2022)
Per capita energy consumption from wind (2022)
Per capita gas consumption (2022)
Per capita generation of coal electricity (2023)
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions (2022)
Per capita greenhouse gas emissions, excluding land use and forestry (2020)
Per capita international aviation passenger kilometers (2018)
Per capita methane emissions (2022)
Per capita milk consumption (2021)
Per capita nitrous oxide emissions (2022)
Per capita nitrous oxide emissions from agriculture (2020)
Per capita oil consumption (2022)
Per capita passenger kilometers from air travel (2018)
Percentage of teachers in lower-secondary education who are qualified (2019)
Percentage of teachers in pre-primary education who are qualified (2019)
Percentage of teachers in primary education who are qualified (2019)
Percentage of teachers in upper-secondary education who are qualified (2019)
Percentage of territory effectively controlled by government (2023)
Pesticide use (2021)
Pesticide use per hectare of cropland (2021)
Pharmaceutical personnel per 10,000 population (2018)
Phosphate fertilizer use per hectare of cropland (2021)
Phosphorous inputs per hectare of cropland (2014)
Physical integrity rights index V-Dem (2023)
Physical integrity rights score Fariss et al. (2019)
Pig meat per animal (2022)
Pigmeat production (2022)
Political and social integration index BTI (2023)
Political centralization index (2023)
Political civil liberties index (2023)
Political corruption index (2023)
Political liberties Lexical Index (2022)
Political opposition Lexical Index (2022)
Political participation index BTI (2023)
Political participation index EIU (2023)
Political regime Regimes of the World (2023)
Political regime Boix et al. (2020)
Political regime Regimes of the World, including ambiguous regimes (2023)
Political regime Boix et al., including women's right to vote (2020)
Political regime Freedom House, free countries (2023)
Political regime Freedom House, electoral democracies (2023)
Political regime Lexical Index (2022)
Political regime Polity (2018)
Political regime BTI (2023)
Political regime EIU (2023)
Political regime Episodes of Regime Transformation (2023)
Political regime Episodes of Regime Transformation, within regimes (2023)
Political rights rating Freedom House (2023)
Political rights score Freedom House (2023)
Polyarchy Lexical Index (2022)
Population since 10,000 BCE (2021)
Population (2021)
Population census recently completed Brambor et al. (2015)
Population density (2024)
Population having attained at least some formal education (2020)
Population in urban agglomerations of more than 1 million (2022)
Potash fertilizer use per hectare of cropland (2021)
Potato production (2022)
Potato yields (2022)
Poultry meat per animal (2022)
Poultry production (2022)
Poverty gap index at $2.15 per day (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $1 a day (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $10 a day Line chart (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $3.65 a day (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $30 a day (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $30 a day 2011 PPPs (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $40 a day (2019)
Poverty: Share of population living on less than $6.85 a day (2019)
Power outages in firms in a typical month (2020)
Press freedom Freedom House (2016)
Press freedom index Reporters Sans Frontieres (2021)
Prevalence of daily smoking in populations (2021)
Prevalence of extensively drug resistant tuberculosis (2021)
Prevalence of female genital mutilation (2015)
Prevalence rate of cardiovascular diseases IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Prevalence rate of hypertension in women aged 30-79 (2019)
Prevalence rate of obesity in adults Age-standardized (2016)
Primary completion rate (2021)
Primary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index (2019)
Primary energy consumption (2022)
Primary energy consumption by world region (2022)
Primary energy consumption from hydropower (2022)
Primary energy consumption from nuclear (2022)
Primary energy consumption from renewables (2022)
Primary energy consumption from solar (2022)
Primary energy consumption from solar and wind (2022)
Primary energy consumption from wind (2022)
Primary government expenditures as a share of original budget (2022)
Private civil liberties index (2023)
Private health expenditure per person (2020)
Probability that a male will outlive a female (2021)
Projections of share of the population with no formal education IIASA (2020)
Proportion of children aged 3-5 years who are developmentally on track (2021)
Proportion of labor force who are women (2022)
Protected area coverage of marine key biodiversity areas (2022)
Protected area coverage of mountain key biodiversity areas (2022)
Protein-energy malnutrition mortality rates in children (2021)
Public expenditure on healthcare as percent of total healthcare expenditure (2020)
Public healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP (2020)
Public sector employment as a share of total employment (2015)
Public spending on education as a share of GDP (2020)
Pupils per qualified teacher in pre-primary education (2019)
Pupils per qualified teacher in primary education (2019)
Rank in the Economic Complexity Index (2016)
Rate of acute flaccid paralysis from non-polio causes (2023)
Rate of deaths and missing persons due to natural disasters (2021)
Rate of deaths attributed to drug use IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Rate of deaths attributed to drug use IHME (2019)
Rate of deaths attributed to no access to handwashing facilities IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Rate of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation IHME, crude (2019)
Rate of deaths attributed to unsafe water sources IHME, crude (2019)
Rate of disease burden from drug use disorders IHME (2021)
Rate of disease burden from drug use disorders WHO (2019)
Rate of disease burden from lead exposure (2019)
Rate of new tuberculosis cases (2022)
Rate of premature deaths due to alcohol IHME, age-standardized (2019)
Rate of premature deaths due to alcohol IHME, crude (2019)
Ratio of business trips to trips for personal reasons (2019)
Ratio of female to male labor force participation rates Line chart (2022)
Ratio of same-day trips to tourist trips (2019)
Recorded deaths and disappearances during migration (2022)
Red List Index (2023)
Refugee population by country or territory of asylum (2022)
Refugee population by country or territory of origin (2022)
Regulation of political participation score Polity (2018)
Relative poverty: Share of people below 40% of median income (2019)
Relative poverty: Share of people below 50% of median income (2019)
Relative poverty: Share of people below 60% of median income (2019)
Renewable electricity-generating capacity per person (2021)
Renewable freshwater resources per capita (2020)
Reported cases of guinea worm disease (2022)
Reported cases of leprosy (2022)
Reported cases of measles (2022)
Reported cases of paralytic polio (2023)
Reported cases of paralytic polio from vaccine-derived viruses Map (2023)
Reported cases of paralytic polio from wild polioviruses (2023)
Reported maternal mortality rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Reported paralytic polio cases per million (2023)
Reported suicide rates WHO Mortality Database (2019)
Representation of women in the lower chamber of parliament (2023)
Representation of women in the upper chamber of parliament (2023)
Research & development spending as a share of GDP (2021)
Respect for counterarguments score V-Dem (2023)
Respiratory infection death rate WHO Mortality Database, age-standardized (2019)
Revenue from corporate income taxes as a share of GDP (2017)
Rice production (2022)
Rice yields (2022)
Rigorous and impartial public administration index (2023)
Rotavirus deaths prevented by vaccination (2016)
Rule of law index BTI (2023)
Rule of law index V-Dem (2023)
Rye production (2022)
Rye yields (2022)
Same-sex sexual acts illegal Velasco (2019)
Schizophrenia prevalence (2021)
Scholarly publications on artificial intelligence per million people (2022)
Score of adoption and implementation of national strategies for managing disaster risk (2021)
Self-reported life satisfaction (2022)
Separation of powers score BTI (2023)
Sesame seed production (2022)
Sex gap in life expectancy (2021)
Sex gap in life expectancy at age 45 (2021)
Sex ratio at birth (2021)
Sex ratio in life expectancy (2021)
Sex ratio of five-year-olds (2021)
Sex ratio of sixty-year-olds (2021)
Share covered by at least one social protection benefit (2020)
Share enrolled in private institutions at the pre-primary education level (2019)
Share enrolled in private institutions at the primary education level (2019)
Share of CO₂ emissions embedded in trade (2021)
Share of E. coli infections resistant to cephalosporins (2020)
Share of GDP from agriculture (2022)
Share of S. aureus infections resistant to methicillin (2021)
Share of academic staff in tertiary education who are female (2018)
Share of adolescents who are not in secondary school (2021)
Share of adult citizens who have the right to vote (2023)
Share of adults aged 15–49 living with HIV IHME (2021)
Share of adults who are overweight or obese (2016)
Share of adults who smoke (2020)
Share of adults with an account at a financial institution (2021)
Share of all deaths caused by HIV/AIDS (2021)
Share of arable land which is organic (2021)
Share of cancer deaths attributed to tobacco use (2019)
Share of central government expenditures funded by taxes (2015)
Share of cereals allocated to animal feed (2021)
Share of cereals allocated to human food (2021)
Share of cereals allocated to industrial uses (2021)
Share of children aged 5-17 years engaged in labor (2014)
Share of children and adolescents who are overweight or obese (2016)
Share of children fully vaccinated against measles (2021)
Share of children in primary school age who are in school (2018)
Share of children under five living with HIV (2021)
Share of children who are overweight (2022)
Share of children who are overweight or obese (2022)
Share of children who experienced violence (2021)
Share of children who have anemia (2019)
Share of children with an active hepatitis B infection (2015)
Share of children with diarrhea receiving oral rehydration salts and zinc (2014)
Share of children with diarrhea receiving zinc (2014)
Share of cumulative CO₂ emissions from oil (2022)
Share of deaths attributed to air pollution (2019)
Share of deaths attributed to obesity (2019)
Share of deaths attributed to outdoor air pollution (2019)
Share of deaths attributed to smoking (2019)
Share of deaths attributed to unsafe sanitation (2019)
Share of deaths attributed to unsafe water sources (2019)
Share of deaths for which the cause is registered (2015)
Share of deaths from cardiovascular diseases (2021)
Share of deaths from homicide WHO Mortality Database (2019)
Share of deaths from indoor air pollution (2019)
Share of deaths from secondhand smoke (2019)
Share of deaths from suicide (2021)
Share of deaths from terrorism (2021)
Share of deaths that are registered (2019)
Share of deforestation that is driven by domestic consumption (2013)
Share of deforestation that is exported (2013)
Share of electricity generated by low-carbon sources (2023)
Share of electricity production from coal (2023)
Share of electricity production from fossil fuels (2023)
Share of electricity production from gas (2023)
Share of electricity production from hydropower (2023)
Share of electricity production from nuclear (2022)
Share of electricity production from oil (2023)
Share of electricity production from renewable sources (2023)
Share of electricity production from renewables (2023)
Share of electricity production from solar (2023)
Share of electricity production from solar and wind (2023)
Share of electricity production from wind (2023)
Share of employee compensation in public spending (2015)
Share of female graduates from science and technology programs in tertiary education (2016)
Share of final energy use that comes from renewable sources (2020)
Share of food products in total merchandise exports (2022)
Share of freshwater Key Biodiversity Areas that are protected (2022)
Share of global CO₂ consumption-based emissions (2021)
Share of global CO₂ emissions (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from aviation (2018)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from cement (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from coal (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from domestic air travel (2018)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from flaring (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from gas (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from international aviation (2018)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from land-use change (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions from oil (2022)
Share of global CO₂ emissions including land-use change (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from cement (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from coal (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from flaring (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from gas (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions from land-use change (2022)
Share of global cumulative CO₂ emissions including land-use change (2022)
Share of global domestic aviation passenger kilometers (2018)
Share of global excess nitrogen from croplands (2014)
Share of global forest area (2020)
Share of global greenhouse gas emissions (2022)
Share of global greenhouse gas emissions from food (2015)
Share of global merchandise exports (2021)
Share of global methane emissions (2022)
Share of global mismanaged plastic waste (2019)
Share of global nitrous oxide emissions (2022)
Share of global passenger kilometers from air travel (2018)
Share of global passenger kilometers from international aviation (2018)
Share of global plastic waste emitted to the ocean (2019)
Share of global plastic waste imports (2022)
Share of global population living in extreme poverty including and excluding China (2019)
Share of global services exports (2021)
Share of government expenditure going to interest payments (2015)
Share of gross national income from poverty reduction grants (2021)
Share of households consuming iodized salt (2015)
Share of households that are single-parent (2014)
Share of land area used for agriculture (2021)
Share of land area used for arable agriculture (2021)
Share of land covered by forest (2020)
Share of land covered by lakes and rivers (2022)
Share of local governments that adopted and implemented local disaster risk reduction strategies in line with national strategies (2021)
Share of manufactures in total merchandise exports (2022)
Share of manufacturing in gross domestic product (GDP) (2022)
Share of marine territorial waters that are protected (2022)
Share of medium and high-tech in gross domestic product (GDP) (2020)
Share of men expected to survive to the age of 65 (2021)
Share of men who are obese (2016)
Share of men who are overweight or obese (2016)
Share of men who smoke (2020)
Share of mountain land that is degraded (2018)
Share of national greenhouse gas emissions that come from food (2015)
Share of neonates protected at birth against neonatal tetanus (2020)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against Haemophilus influenzae type B (2021)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (2021)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against hepatitis B (2021)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against measles (2021)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against rubella (2021)
Share of one-year-olds vaccinated against tuberculosis (2021)
Share of one-year-olds who are vaccinated against polio (2021)
Share of one-year-olds who received the inactivated polio vaccine (2021)
Share of out-of-pocket expenditure on healthcare (2020)
Share of people agreeing with the statement "most people can be trusted" (2022)
Share of people in range of 4G mobile network (2021)
Share of people living in urban agglomerations of more than 1 million (2022)
Share of people practicing open defecation (2022)
Share of people who say their government should do more to tackle climate change (2024)
Share of people who say they are happy (2022)
Share of people who say they are happy First & last waves (2014)
Share of people with HIV who receive antiretroviral therapy (2021)
Share of percutaneous coronary interventions (PCI) performed by transradial access (2016)
Share of plastic waste exports (2022)
Share of population covered by social protection (2017)
Share of population living below national poverty lines (2019)
Share of population living in extreme poverty Line chart (2019)
Share of population living in extreme poverty 'Cost of basic needs' approach, Historical estimates (Moatsos, 2021), Line chart (2018)
Share of population living in extreme poverty 2011 PPPs (2019)
Share of population living on less than $2 per day (2017)
Share of population living on less than $5 per day (2017)
Share of population that cannot afford a calorie sufficient diet (2017)
Share of population that cannot afford a healthy diet (2021)
Share of population that cannot afford a nutrient adequate diet (2017)
Share of population using at least a basic drinking water source (2022)
Share of population with access to basic handwashing facilities (2020)
Share of population with alcohol use disorders (2016)
Share of population with an alcohol use disorder (2021)
Share of population with cancer Age-standardized, by country (2021)
Share of population with cancer Crude, by country (2021)
Share of population with developmental intellectual disability (2021)
Share of population with drug use disorders (2021)
Share of population with large expenditures on health (2017)
Share of population with mental disorder (2021)
Share of population with mental health disorders (2021)
Share of population with no formal education (2020)
Share of population with very large expenditures on health (2017)
Share of potential polio cases tested and reported to the WHO (2023)
Share of pregnant women who have anemia (2019)
Share of pregnant women with HIV that receive antiretroviral therapy (2021)
Share of primary energy consumption from coal (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from fossil fuels (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from gas (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from hydroelectric power (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from low-carbon sources (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from nuclear (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from oil (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from renewable sources (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from solar (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from solar and wind (2022)
Share of primary energy consumption from wind (2022)
Share of primary school teachers who are female (2022)
Share of primary-school-age children who are out of school (2021)
Share of rural population with access to basic handwashing facilities (2020)
Share of secondary school teachers who are female (2019)
Share of senior and middle management positions filled by women (2021)
Share of services in total exports (2022)
Share of students achieving advanced learning outcomes (2015)
Share of students achieving intermediate learning outcomes (2015)
Share of students achieving minimum learning outcomes (2015)
Share of students from abroad (2016)
Share of students studying abroad (2017)
Share of tariffs on imports from least-developed countries with a 0% rate (2021)
Share of teachers in primary education who are trained (2019)
Share of teachers in secondary education who are qualified (2019)
Share of teachers in secondary education who are trained (2019)
Share of terrestrial Key Biodiversity Areas that are protected (2022)
Share of the labor force employed in agriculture (2019)
Share of the population estimated to have prior infection by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (2021)
Share of the population exposed to air pollution levels above WHO guidelines (2017)
Share of the population living in urban areas UN (2022)
Share of the population living in urban areas UN and HYDE projections (2024)
Share of the population living in urbanized areas HYDE (2023)
Share of the population not using an improved water source (2022)
Share of the population not using improved sanitation (2022)
Share of the population that is female (2022)
Share of the population that is undernourished (2021)
Share of the population that were born in another country (2015)
Share of the population using at least basic sanitation services (2022)
Share of the population using safely managed sanitation facilities (2022)
Share of the population using the Internet (2022)
Share of the population who completed lower-secondary education (2017)
Share of the population with access to clean fuels for cooking (2021)
Share of the population with access to electricity (2021)
Share of the population with alcohol or drug use disorders (2021)
Share of the population with malaria (2021)
Share of the population with post-secondary education (2017)
Share of the population with tertiary education (2020)
Share of the population without access to clean fuels for cooking (2021)
Share of the rural population using at least basic sanitation services (2022)
Share of the rural population using at least basic water services (2022)
Share of the urban population living in slums (2018)
Share of the urban population who live in the largest city (2022)
Share of tourism in total GDP (2014)
Share of tuberculosis patients with HIV (2022)
Share of urban population using at least basic sanitation services (2022)
Share of urban population using at least basic water services (2022)
Share of urban populations with convenient access to public transport (2020)
Share of women expected to survive to the age of 65 (2021)
Share of women in ministerial positions (2022)
Share of women in parliament IPU (2022)
Share of women in parliament V-Dem (2023)
Share of women of reproductive age who have anemia (2019)
Share of women who are expected to die from pregnancy-related causes (2020)
Share of women who are obese (2016)
Share of women who are overweight or obese (2016)
Share of women who experienced violence by an intimate partner IHME (2017)
Share of women who experienced violence from an intimate partner United Nations (2018)
Share of women who smoke (2020)
Share of women whose family planning needs are met (2014)
Share of women with no formal education (2020)
Share of workers informally employed in non-agricultural workplaces (2019)
Share of young people not in education, employment or training (2021)
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are effective (2019)
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are important (2019)
Share that strongly agree that vaccines are safe (2019)
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are effective (2019)
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are important (2019)
Share that strongly disagree that vaccines are safe (2019)
Share that think people in their country should act to tackle climate change (2024)
Share who report lifetime anxiety or depression (2020)
Share who say it's extremely important for the national government to fund research on anxiety/depression (2020)
Share who use tobacco (2020)
Solar (photovoltaic) panels cumulative capacity (2022)
Solar and wind power generation (2023)
Solar power generation (2023)
Sorghum yields (2022)
Sovereign state Butcher and Griffiths (2022)
Sovereign state Gleditsch and Ward (2022)
Sovereign state Correlates of War (2022)
Soybean production (2022)
Soybean yields (2022)
Spirits consumption per person (2019)
Stability of democratic institutions index BTI (2023)
State capacity index (2015)
Stateness index BTI (2023)
States involved in interstate conflicts (2014)
States involved in state-based conflicts Map (2022)
Statistical capacity indicator (2020)
Statutory corporate income tax rate (2018)
Stillbirth rate (2021)
Strong elected local governments index V-Dem (2023)
Strong elected regional governments index V-Dem (2023)
Sugar beet production (2022)
Sugar beet yields (2022)
Sugar cane production (2022)
Sugar cane yields (2022)
Suicide death rate IHME data (2021)
Suicide rate IHME data, age-standardized (2021)
Suicide rate WHO GHE, crude (2019)
Suicide rate WHO GHE, age-standardized (2019)
Sunflower seed production (2022)
Sunflower seed yields (2022)
Surface temperature anomaly (2017)
Sweet potato production (2022)
Tariff rate across all products (2019)
Tax revenues as a share of GDP UN-SDG (2015)
Taxes on goods and services (2020)
Taxes on incomes of individuals and corporations (2020)
Terrorism deaths (2021)
Terrorism deaths rate (2021)
Tetanus death rate (2021)
Tetanus mortality in children under-5 (2021)
The Universal Health Coverage (UHC) Service Coverage Index (2021)
The disease burden from alcohol use disorders (2021)
Thermal efficiency factor applied to non-fossil energy sources to convert them to primary energy equivalents (2022)
Threatened mammal species (2018)
Time required to start a business (2019)
Tomato production (2022)
Tomato yields (2022)
Tonne-kilometers of air freight (2021)
Total applied phosphorous to crops (2014)
Total assistance for development received (2021)
Total disease burden IHME (2021)
Total disease burden WHO (2019)
Total domestic aviation passenger kilometers (2018)
Total donations received for biodiversity conservation (2021)
Total factor productivity (2019)
Total financial assistance and flows for agriculture, by recipient (2021)
Total greenhouse gas emissions per capita (2020)
Total greenhouse gas emissions, excluding land use and forestry (2020)
Total health expenditure per person (2020)
Total healthcare expenditure as a share of GDP (2021)
Total market capitalization of listed domestic companies as a share of GDP (2022)
Total natural resource rents (2021)
Total net enrollment rate in primary education (2019)
Total nitrogen inputs to crops (2014)
Total number of international immigrants (2015)
Total official development assistance for technical co-operation (2021)
Total official financial flows for water supply and sanitation, by recipient (2021)
Total official flows commitments for aid for trade, by recipient (2021)
Total passenger kilometers from air travel (2018)
Total passenger kilometers from international aviation (2018)
Total reserves in months of imports (2021)
Total shortfall from extreme poverty (2019)
Trade as a share of GDP (2022)
Trade in services (exports plus imports) as share of GDP (2022)
Transparent laws Regimes of the World (2023)
Trips by domestic tourists per 1,000 people (2015)
Tuberculosis case detection rate (2022)
Tuberculosis case fatality rate (2022)
Tuberculosis cases (2022)
Tuberculosis death rate IHME, age-standardized (2021)
Tuberculosis death rate IHME, crude (2021)
Tuberculosis death rate WHO (2019)
Tuberculosis death rate (2022)
Tuberculosis death rate in people without HIV WHO, crude rate (2022)
Tuberculosis deaths WHO GHE (2019)
Tuberculosis deaths WHO 2023 (2022)
Tuberculosis deaths in children under five (2021)
Tuberculosis patients living with HIV receiving antiretroviral therapy (2021)
Tuberculosis patients tested positive for HIV (2021)
Tuberculosis treatment success rate (2021)
Typhoid and paratyphoid fever death rate in children under five (2021)
UN projection of infant deaths (2023)
Unemployment rate ILO (2022)
Unemployment rate, women (2022)
Universal right to vote Lexical Index (2022)
Unsentenced detainees as a proportion of overall prison population (2016)
Upper-secondary completion rate, adjusted gender parity index (2019)
Urban area over the long-term HYDE (2023)
Urban land area (2015)
Usage of at least basic sanitation facilities (2022)
Value of agricultural production (2022)
Value of exported of goods and services (2022)
Value of imported goods as a share of GDP (2014)
Vegetable consumption per capita (2021)
Voter turnout of registered voters (2023)
Voter turnout of voting-age population (2023)
Water productivity, GDP per cubic meter of freshwater withdrawal (2020)
Wealth share of the richest 1% WID (2022)
Wealth share of the richest 10% WID (2022)
What share of the population living with HIV are women? (2021)
Wheat production (2022)
Wheat yields (2022)
Who is contributing to deforestation abroad? (2013)
Wild fish catch from bottom trawling (2018)
Wind power generation (2023)
Wine production (2021)
Women's civil liberties index (2023)
Women's civil society participation index (2023)
Women's political empowerment index (2023)
Women's political participation index (2023)
Women's universal right to vote Lexical Index (2022)
Women, Business and the Law Index (2023)
Year-on-year change in CO₂ emissions (2022)
Youth dependency ratio (2021)
Youth mortality rate (2021)

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Egypt Tourism Statistics

Egypt eg: international tourism: expenditures, view egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: expenditures from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt Egypt EG: International Tourism: Expenditures

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Expenditures: % of Total Imports

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: expenditures: % of total imports from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Expenditures: for Passenger Transport Items

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: expenditures: for passenger transport items from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Expenditures: for Travel Items

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: expenditures: for travel items from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Number of Arrivals

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: number of arrivals from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Number of Departures

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: number of departures from 1995 to 2014 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Receipts

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: receipts from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Receipts: % of Total Exports

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: receipts: % of total exports from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Receipts: for Passenger Transport Items

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: receipts: for passenger transport items from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

Egypt EG: International Tourism: Receipts: for Travel Items

View egypt's egypt eg: international tourism: receipts: for travel items from 1995 to 2016 in the chart:.

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Mangroves in Egypt and the Middle East: current status, threats, and opportunities

Open access
Published: 12 June 2024

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T. A. Waleed 1 ,
Y. K. Abdel-Maksoud 1 ,
R. S. Kanwar 2 &
H. Sewilam 3

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Mangrove forests are among the Nature Based Solutions (NBS) that help in mitigating climate change effects as they sequester carbon dioxide gas four times greater than normal forests. They stabilize coastlines, reduce coastal flooding, and provide nurseries to wildlife. Only two mangrove species exist in the Middle East: Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata , due to their high tolerance to the region’s harsh and dry environmental conditions. This paper presents a comprehensive review on the current mangrove status in these countries, threats facing them, and rehabilitation initiatives taken to increase mangrove plantations in the Middle East. The review showed that Middle Eastern mangroves are dwarves, grow in dispatched form, have limited access to freshwater inflow, and are dominated by Avicennia marina specie. The largest and smallest mangrove cover were 20,400 ha and 80 ha found in Saudi Arabia and Bahrain respectively. Uncontrolled camel grazing, oil spills, habitat destruction, irresponsible tourism, and solid waste accumulation are from the major threats facing mangrove ecosystems. Climate change impacts through increased seawater salinity and temperature, microplastics, and heavy metals introduction to seawater threaten mangroves health. Various mangrove rehabilitation initiatives have taken place in Oman, Bahrain, UAE, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt as they have planted 1.5 million, 140 thousand, 1 million, 4.3 million, and 0.3 million mangrove trees respectively. This research presents some regulatory framework and policies needed for mangrove plantations rehabilitation for the mitigation of Green House Gases (GHG) and improve the livelihood of the indigenous people living along the coastal areas of the world.

An overview of land degradation, desertification and sustainable land management using GIS and remote sensing applications

Active afforestation of drained peatlands is not a viable option under the EU Nature Restoration Law

Deforestation and Forests Degradation Impacts on the Environment

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Introduction

Sustainability is a frequently used term that everyone is trying to develop and adopt using innovative environmentally friendly practices, however, the long-term goal of sustainability cannot be achieved unless bigger policy decisions are made to implement correct policy and technologically sustainable solutions so that the term of sustainability is well understood by all sections of the society. It is misunderstood that climate change and sustainability are both zero carbon emissions terms while seeking a balance between providing sufficient resources for enhancing livelihoods of future generations and by not compromising the irresponsible use of Earth’s resources (Heinberg 2010 ). World sustainability is at risk due to climate change as it is threatening the basic existence of various ecosystems.

This puts the urge to develop new systems to mitigate its impacts of climate change and have thriving ecosystems sustaining environmental and human health conditions on this planet. Since most human systems in today’s world rely on fossil fuels that is suffocating the planet with greenhouse gas emissions, the sustainable and alternate solutions will depend on how we develop future systems that are less dependent of fossil fuels and can sequestrate carbon and at the same time minimize greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. However, the question is why global society, especially the developed and industrialized world, is dedicating and directing the majority of its efforts towards developing new systems while mother nature has gifted us with many and easy to use natural systems that can do a much better job for humanity in mitigating climate change? We have deforested majority of Europe and Northern America either for agriculture or to develop industrialized economies. Even large-scale deforestation has already taken place in Asia as well as in South America and deforestation is going on in Africa as well. Forests have provided food, water, fuel, fiber and shelter to humanity for thousands of years and have kept this planet ecologically healthy. Trees in thriving forestlands of the world have been sequestrating atmospheric carbon for their annual growth and storing it in their biomass tissues. Forests are also natural factories of producing limitless oxygen in the planet. Therefore, replanting part of the deforested areas on annual basis in the world is one of the best nature-based solution (NBS) available to us. Replanting trees will not only mitigate climate but will enhance recharge of groundwater systems and help make dry rivers start flowing helping us solve the problem of growing water scarcity in the world.

Forested areas with naturally grown trees, such as mangroves, tend to produce more biomass to sequester four times more carbon than if trees are grown open fields (Pregitzer et al. 2022 ). Mangroves trees are a nature’s gift to humanity which are capable of growing in salty and brackish water in coastal areas as well as in freshwater wetlands, but natural potential for growing mangroves is in salty and brackish areas due to less competition with other plants that only are adapted to freshwater systems. Despite the many benefits that are provided by the ecosystems in mangrove forests, mangroves are being destroyed at an alarming rate. In the past century, 67% of global mangroves have been lost (IUCN, 2017). Study after study have shown that, we as humans, have destroyed more than 80% mangrove forests creating beaches and expensive beach properties for tourism. This greed of humanity has resulted not only in more GHG emissions but also destroyed a natural technology to mitigate climate change and preserve ecologically healthy coastlines in the world. Mangroves, although occupying only about 1% of the forested lands worldwide, act as a natural carbon capture agent as they can store three to four times more carbon compared to land-based forests (Nyanga 2020 ). During their growth, mangroves can store and accumulate from 50 to 220 metric tons of carbon from the atmosphere per acre which results in more than 24 million metric tons of annual carbon storage for the entire planet (Bartoli et al. 2020 ). Restoring and conserving mangrove ecosystems is vital to sustaining both coastal communities and biodiversity. Therefore, investing in the restoration of mangroves forests will bring wide-ranging benefits and their protection is a key pathway to meeting the ambitious goals laid out in the UN Sustainable Development Goals and the UNFCCC Paris Agreement for climate mitigation.

Brief introduction of mangroves plants (seed, germination of seeds and the rooting system)

Mangrove term, Rhizophoraceae, is referred to plant species that have high tolerance for salty waters and grow in tropical and subtropical coastlines (Bartoli et al. 2020 ). These trees are capable of growing in salty, brackish coastline wetlands (Vannucci 2000 ). Filtering about 90% of the seawater salt is the coping mechanism that mangroves plants use for adaptation to extreme salt environment besides using their snorkeling roots for breathing and hoarding water in their succulent leaves (Nyanga 2020 ). The rooting system of mangroves is highly distinctive having arch shaped roots above the water surface and these aerial roots broaden the base of the tree and stabilize the shallow root system in the soft, loose soil (Purnobasuki 2011 ). Moreover, the roots play a crucial role in providing oxygen for respiration in addition to providing structural support (Lovelock et al. 2006 ) but mainly the lenticels are how oxygen enters a mangrove and they close during high tide to prevent the trees from drowning (Purnobasuki 2011 ). Sahoo ( 2018 ) illustrated that the roots are peg like with a pencil size, called pneumatophores, that usually diverge from the branches and stems, and then find their way at a distance from the main tree through soil penetration. As far as the mangrove seeds are concerned, their germination starts on the tree which equips them to take root once they drop and the sprout can quickly establish itself in the soft soil of tidal mudflats before the next tide arrives if it falls at low tide (Moore 2009 ). In case of high tides, the seed will float and take root as soon as it finds the firm ground.

Mangrove habitats

Mangroves can conquer waterlogged soil on different substrata: sands, clayey and silty muds, and calcareous muds, hollows and cracks on rocks, coral reefs, and wadi deltas enriched with sediments deposited from tidal currents of rainwater runoff. Coastal soils are usually marginally acidic due to abundance of CO 2 that arises from aerobic respiration and organic matter decay. Some gases are emitted from the soil due to anaerobic conditions giving it anoxic soft conditions and pungent odor: nitrate is converted to nitrogen, carbon dioxide is reduced to methane, and hydrogen sulphide production occurs from sulphate reducing bacteria. Mangrove tree bark contains tiny pores or apertures called lenticels which facilitate gas exchange between the tree's interior tissues and the surrounding environment. Mangrove areas are regularly flooded by tidal waters, in a process called tidal inundation, which provides the essential salts and nutrients for mangrove survival and growth (Kumbier et al. 2021 ). Soils are characterized by high salinity, lower oxygen concentration, water logging, and greyish-black color due to insoluble ferric compounds reduction into soluble ferrous sulphides leading to phosphates and iron release (Afefe et al. 2019 ; Hinokidani and Nakanishi 2019 ). Mangroves are usually accompanied by wildlife depending on their geographical distribution including reptiles, migratory birds, mammals, sea life, and amphibians. Their roots provide shelters for shellfish and algae from predators while the fallen or eaten leaves are either eaten by crabs and amphipods or degraded by microorganisms into a healthy food for marine life (Paleologos et al. 2019 ).

Factors affecting mangroves growth

Mangroves are located in Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Americas, and they can grow in low-oxygen waterlogged mud and adapt to harsh coastal conditions (Spalding et al. 2014 ). There are several factors that affects the distribution, abundance, and growth rate of mangroves like: soil and water salinity, temperature, tidal currents, groundwater, land barriers, sediment supply, coastal typology, wave action, sediment yield, freshwater discharge from river catchments, water characteristics, geomorphological forms, dissolved oxygen (DO) and tidal range (Ellison 2021 ). Mangrove trees need freshwater sources to function where they receive a boost from wadi flash floods to overcome effects of excessive saltwater and high saline soils build up. Their ability to grow in low-oxygen soil is supported by fine sediments accumulation due to slow water movement. Moreover, the dense tangles roots of the mangroves provide the trees with stability in shallow environments against tides thus enhancing their survival and growth. Generally, mangroves prefer growing in temperatures above 19 °C and not below10 °C as they cannot resist freezing; this is one of the main factors that affects their distribution worldwide (South Florida Aquatic Environments 2023 ). Nutrient availability is another factor that affects mangrove’s structure, growth, and productivity (Reef et al. 2010 ). They obtain their nutrients, specifically nitrogen, from air while phosphorous and potassium are obtained from the sea water, sediments, or animal feces. Areas with loamy sand substrate characterized with average hydraulic conductivity positively impacts mangroves growth (Abd-El Monsef et al. 2017 ). Mangroves thrive in environments with freshwater influx to overcome the saltwater effect and hyper-saline soils build up, constant temperatures above 20 °C, and sheltered locations from high tides and storms. Their growth is enhanced at river deltas as due to controlled tide amplitude and frequency, nutrients inflow and removal of organic waste, carbon dioxide, and sulfur enhances growth environment (Paleologos et al. 2019 ).

Adaptation of mangrove species in the region

Globally, mangroves survive at temperatures exceeding 19 °C but not below freezing temperatures, however they do not tolerate temperature fluctuations that exceed 10 °C. As facultative halophytes, they are capable of surviving in both saltwater and freshwater habitats, however saltwater is not essential for their survival (South Florida Aquatic Environments 2023 ). The availability of nutrients in the mangrove’s environment is controlled by various biotic and abiotic factors. Sometimes mangrove soils are nutrient deficient which lead to adopting some nutrient-conservation methods by the trees like, immobilizing the nutrients available in leaf litter through decomposition phase, using the old root channels, re-absorbing the nutrients available in leaves before they fall, having high root to shoot ration, and ever greenness; Phosphorous and nitrogen are the main nutrients impacting mangroves growth specifically ammonium uptake (Reef et al. 2010 ). Mangroves are observed in hyper-saline environments because the region receives freshwater seepage from groundwater and the presence of mud depositions allow mangroves to expand on them (Abdel-Razik 1991 ). They also thrive the best in zones abundant with brackish water where sea water mixes with groundwater (Rasul and Stewart 2015 ).

The reason behind the existence of only 2 mangrove species in the Middle East and Egypt goes back to their ability to adapt to the extreme and harsh environmental conditions of the region contrary to the other abundant species. The region is mostly hot, arid, its seas are extremely saline, and receive very little rainfall as well as little freshwater seepage. This also led to variance in species distribution among the region countries as A. marina clearly dominates in all countries in the Middle East while R. marina’s existence is limited to specific areas in only few countries due to the properties of A. marina and its survival characteristics and adaptation methods, however Rhizophora mucronata grows at freshwater streams ends which is not dominant in the Middle East. The health of mangroves can be measured using many indicators as flowering status, number of propagules and seedlings, and canopy cover (Abd-El Monsef et al. 2017 ). Usually Avicenna marina gets flooded by tide water on a daily basis which can lead to waterlogging to the young seedlings, however due to its viviparous Propagules buoyancy, it can adapt to this condition (Robert et al. 2015 ). Although this species proved to be sensitive to high salinities based on previous studies, it has salt secretion glands that balances the concentration of salts within the leaves to moderate levels (Abdel-Razik 1991 ).

In their published report in 2003, the FAO discussed the capability of mangrove forests to adapt to different environmental conditions through various adaptation mechanisms as given below:

Adaptation to High Temperature: To reduce the gained heat by the mangrove leaves due to sun exposure, mangrove trees position their leaves at an angle, usually less than 180, to the horizontal to protect it from rapid water loss rates. This specific leaf arrangement maximizes the whole canopy’s photosynthesis activity and minimizes self-shading (Naskar and Palit 2015 ).

Adaptation to Elevated Salt Content: plants within same species in the region use different mechanisms to adopt to various environmental circumstances in order to cope with high salt, specifically three mechanisms are adopted: tissue tolerance to high salt concentration known as accumulation, excess salt secretion, or salt exclusion by roots. For the exclusion mechanism, 90% of the excluded salt end up at the root surface which leads to its accumulation near the roots and hinder the seeds development (Ocean 2023 ). Generally, elevated salt amounts are deposited on the roots, stems’ barks, and some is directed towards the senescent leaves which shed afterwards. Excess salts are excreted to the surface as a response to high saline environment through salt glands available on the leaf surface. R. mucronata copes with high salt through tolerance and exclusion mechanisms while A. marina uses secretion, exclusion, and tolerance (NOAA 2019 ).

Adaptation to Successful Reproduction and Offspring Survival: Adult mangroves trees adopt methods to ensure successful reproduction with high production rate of propagule as a compensation for losses due to seeds dispersal in unfavorable areas, mortality, or damage caused by marine animals or insects. A lot of species do not produce fruits or seeds, but rather seedlings that grow on the parent tree after pollination and stays there for time up to a month in a phenomenon called “vivipary”; this is a reproduction adaptation with the aim of protecting the seedlings from early exposure to high levels of salt and allow them to gain support and strength before being exposed to high tides and get washed away (Vannucci 2001 ).

Adaptation to Anoxic Soil and Waterlogging: Avicennia marina has horizontal and shallow roots that diverge outside accompanied with a number of vertical respiratory roots, known as pneumatophores; They grow above soil surface for exchanging oxygen in the anoxic sediments (NOAA 2019 ). On average, one tree with an average height of 2.5 m can have up to 10,000 pneumatophores (Cabahug et al. 2006 ). The respiratory roots have lenticels on their surface which facilitates gas exchange with the tissues present underground; These roots stay close to the surface to reach anoxic depths. R. mucronata aerial roots branch away from the main tree trunk up to 2 m above the soil and grow with a rate of 1 cm/day and half of the root volume is represented by air gaps. Interestingly, almost 1 quarter of a mangrove tree biomass is in its aerial roots which support the main trunk. The silt roots provide extra support for the tree against severe strain by wind and tides (Sulochanan 2013 ).

The tolerance of both Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata to harsh environmental conditions can be measured through different indicators: production of new leaves, trunk circumference, plant height, number main and lateral branches, and size index (K. A. Abdel-Hamid et al. 2007 ) as well as root system growth (Naskar & Palit 2015 ), chlorophyll, mangrove area change, and canopy density (Hai et al. 2022 ). However, their tolerance to the Middle East extreme harsh conditions is best explained through the trees’ height as it was observed that mangroves in the region are characterized as dwarves due to having small stature compared to mangroves found in other regions. Factors like limited nutrient and freshwater availability, high sedimentation rates in the coastal regions, arid conditions, and high salinity all contribute to the dwarf-look of mangroves in the Middle East.

Benefits of mangrove forests

Mangrove forests are naturally grown trees, primarily found in intertidal coastal zones and have numerous benefits to their surrounding environments (A. Abdel-Hamid et al. 2018 ). Being the most valuable coastal ecosystems in the world, Pant and Singh ( 2021 ) highlighted their survival abilities in oxygen deficit, saline, waterlogged sediments, and nutrient deficient environmental conditions.

These forests serve as a transition between marine and terrestrial environments and offer various benefits to mankind, biodiversity, biotechnology, controlling land degradation, and industry. Here are some examples of their various uses:

Timber and fuelwood : specific mangrove species provide valuable timber that can be used as fuelwood for heating and cooking, lighting, animal feed, construction as mangrove timber is water-resistant and durable, furniture, and production of forest products like wood for smoking and packing boxes (Forest Resources Development Branch 1994 ).

Aquaculture and fisheries : these forests help local fisheries and aquaculture sectors by serving as essential habitats and nurseries for a variety of fish, crabs, and mollusks thus contributing to local seafood abundance (Luom et al. 2021 ).

Traditional medicine : different parts of mangrove trees are used to treat conditions like respiratory conditions, skin infections, and digestive disorders. Some species have compounds with antimicrobial properties that can be used in new antimicrobial agents and antibiotics development. They are also used in pharmaceuticals and as genetic resources (Abdel-Aziz et al. 2016 ).

Active ingredients and essential oils : can be produced from mangroves and used in perfumes, skincare products, and aromatherapy.

Ecotourism : these forests attract tourists who are curious to explore the distinctive mangroves ecosystems thus bringing sustainable job opportunities (A. Afefe 2021 ).

Education and scientific research : mangroves act as living classrooms that allow students, through field trips, to study the distinct features of its ecosystem and learn about biodiversity and coastal ecosystems. They also offer a rich subject for coastal and marine, restoration and conservation, climate change research as well as ecological and biodiversity studies (Kumar et al. 2014 ).

Biodiversity

Nursery grounds : mangrove ecosystems are rich in biodiversity serving as habitats for diverse species of birds, plants, reptiles, mammals, marine life, and amphibians which contributes to the productivity and health of coastal ecosystems (Rasul and Stewart 2015 ).

Supporting migratory birds : they offer nesting sites for the migratory species which increases survival and conservation (Buelow and Sheaves 2015 ).

Livestock production : for camels and goats (Syntiche et al. 2021 ).

Biotechnology

Bioactive compounds : a wide range of bioactive compounds are produced from these trees with potential use in cosmetics, pharmaceutical, and other sectors (Cadamuro et al. 2021 ).

Phytoremediation : certain mangrove species can clean up contaminated locations due to their ability to absorb and detoxify toxins in water and soil (Verâne et al. 2020 ).

Bioprospecting : they offer opportunities for discovering unique genetic resources, microorganisms, and enzymes that can be used in the advancement of biotechnology.

Wildlife management

Biodiversity conservation : the conservation of many wildlife species can be encouraged by preserving the habitats and food sources that mangrove ecosystems provide.

Habitat restoration: for endangered species like sea turtles, crocodiles, and some bird species, mangroves are essential for maintaining and rebuilding their ecosystems.

Controlling land degradation

Soil improvement and erosion control : mangroves trap sediments using their dense root system and add organic matter to the soil thus enhancing its fertility and stabilizing shorelines from erosion caused by tides and wave currents. Moreover, they protect water quality by removing pollutants and nutrients from runoff of storm water before reaching coral reefs and habitats of seagrass areas (Florida Department of Environmental Protection 2016 ).

Coastal protection : they act as a natural barrier against cyclones and storms by reducing incoming wave heights and coastal flooding by absorbing water through their peats during storms and heavy rains (Silva and Amarasinghe 2023 ).

Industrial applications

Apiculture and honey production : mangrove flowers are used for honey production in coastal areas as they are a nectar source for bees (Kathiresan 2021 ).

Manufacturing of multiple household items : glue, match sticks, and hairdressing oil as well as paper products (Mitra and Biswas 2021 ).

Fragrance and flavor industry : aromatic chemicals are produced by several mangrove species and are used as scents and flavorings in the food and beverage industry (Abraham and Chatterjee 2020 ).

Others uses : biofuel production, bioremediation, and wastewater treatment.

Mangrove forests are also an incredible source of carbon sequestration and storage serving an important role in climate mitigation. They sequestrate massive amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store them underwater in coastal ecosystems like salt marshes, seagrass beds, and mangrove forests for millennia in their carbon-rich flooded soils known as blue carbon (George 2019 ). Mangroves have carbon sequestration ability up to 4 times more than any other normal trees (Leal and Spalding 2022 ). Carbon sequestration is defined as the ecosystem’s ability to sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide to protect mangrove environments which eventually reduces greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change. However, these ecosystems are subjected to deterioration in most of the developing countries which reduces their sequestration abilities and therefore the stored carbon will be affected by this deterioration and get turned into carbon dioxide then get released back to the atmosphere (Aljenaid et al. 2022 ).

Coastal areas with thriving mangrove forests provide best ecosystems that are essential to the sustainability of fisheries, improving water quality, and conserving biodiversity and unique cultural identity in coastal areas of the world. A TNC-led study estimated that the protection of 200 hectares of mangroves in Belize’s Turneffe region would generate approximately 106,000 tons of carbon offsets over 20 years, along with $1.3 million yearly of avoided storm damages. TNC is working with local landowners to develop sustainable tourism plans that will protect these vital systems and the communities that depend on them (IUCN, 2017). This coastal resilience project will generate revenue from the sale of credits to support ongoing conservation and management of this habitat. Mangroves and other coastal ecosystems, plentiful in Belize, have up to five times as much capacity as inland forests to store carbon dioxide, referred to as “blue carbon” (Polidoro et al. 2010 ).

Environmental and food security benefits of mangroves

Mangroves are one of the most important coastal ecosystem food web parts as its debris are considered the base of the food web and it enhances the health and status of mangrove habitat. Although only covering 0.1 percent of Earth’s surface, mangroves transport more than 10% of the dissolved organic carbon that is derived from terrestrial sources to the ocean. Young organisms can find a home in the one-of-a-kind ecosystem created by the intricate web of mangrove roots as they host some organisms when they are submerged: bryozoans, barnacles, sponges, algae, and oysters because the organisms need a hard surface to anchor on while feeding. Muddy bottoms are home to mud lobsters and shrimp while mangrove leaves are mulched by crabs thus enriching the soil with nutrients for other bottom feeders (Sulochanan 2013 ).

Fish production: Mangroves support marine life as they create ideal conditions for their spawning and algae growth: slow water flow, shallow waters, and warm seawater temperature due to decaying activities which set the mangroves as the ground for nursery, breeding, and feeding of aquatic organisms. Two facilities for fish are provided by mangroves: aerial roots create a protected ecosystem for early juveniles and larvae while litter fall from the tree establish detrital food web that many fish depend on (Sulochanan 2013 ). Mangrove fisheries are the most profitable part of its ecosystem as when it is carried out according to proper sustainable harvesting techniques, it can benefit numerous human populations; The locals dive for different fish species, shellfish, shrimps, and crustaceans where they keep part for themselves and sell the other to local restaurants, shops, and markets (Wolf 2012 ).

Carbon sequestration: Chow ( 2018 ) described mangroves as high carbon-rich forests that fix the excess atmospheric carbon for respiration with an estimate of 1.8 tC/ha-yr combining wood production, leaf litter, and root with 10–55% of sequestrated carbon stored in the belowground biomass. Due to deforestation of 50,000 km 2 of mangroves during the last century, 3.8*10 8 tC were released from the above ground biomass while not accounting for detrital or underground biomass. Mangroves carbon density varies with location, and with the greatest carbon density present below ground, above-ground carbon density dramatically decreases by minimum 50% with land conversion to agriculture or logging activities. Mangrove plantations can sequestrate 6 tC/ha-yr while naturally existing mangroves carbon sequestration ranges from 0.15 to 2.24 tC/ha-yr. Blue carbon (BC) is the organic carbon captured and stored by carbon-absorbing plants, oceans, and vegetated coastal ecosystems: mangrove forests, tidal marshes, and seagrass meadows (Macreadie et al. 2019 ). BC has climate change mitigation potential; it was found that 10–20% of global mangroves are qualified for blue carbon financing that can be sustainable for 30 years and can meet national climate goals (Zeng et al. 2021 ).

Geographical distribution of mangroves worldwide

Mangrove forests occupied 18.1 million hectares in 1980 but this has number currently has fallen to 15.2 million (Kathiresan and Qasim 2005 ). Mangroves can be found in 118 countries according to (Giri et al. 2011 ) at 30 degrees north and 38 degrees south of the equator (Aslan and Aljahdali 2022 ) and have a land cover of 7.5 million hectares in South and Southeast Asia which is equivalent to 41.5% of the global mangrove forest area (Spalding et al. 1997 ). Mangroves are abundant in protected areas with a plenty of rainfall specifically in saline or brackish water upper intertidal zones and coastal regions of Asia, Africa, South America, Caribbean Sea, Western Atlantic Ocean, and Mexico. On the country level, four countries (Brazil, Indonesia, Australia, and Nigeria) have 41% of the world's mangroves because of warmer tropical and subtropical climates (Ricklefs and Latham 1993 ). Mangroves have restricted growth in the Atlantic-East Pacific with only 12 species because of colder climates whereas the Indo-West Pacific has 58 species (Bartoli et al. 2020 ).

Current status of mangroves in the Middle East and Egypt

The Middle East is mostly characterized by an arid and semi-arid environment with dry and hot climate during summers but have mild and wet winters except for Iraq and Iran’s mountainous areas which experience extreme winter conditions, and the annual precipitation varies from 350 to 750 mm (Climate Center 2021a ). However, Friis and Burt ( 2020 ) mentioned that most of the region experiences an annual average rainfall of less than 100 mm and might reach 250 mm as a maximum. The Arab Gulf is considered a landlocked sea of shallow depth (35 m) which is surrounded by the Middle East countries.

This region is characterized by high water loss as the evaporation rate is ten times greater than the input water from rainfall and rivers thus have high water salinity level (Saenger et al. 2004 ). In the Egyptian Red Sea, the average surface seawater temperature ranges from 20 ºC in the winter to 27.49 ºC in the summer. The Surface salinities in the Red Sea range from 39.79 to 41.52 ppt (Maiyza et al. 2022 ) while ranges from 39 to 41 ppt in the Arabian Gulf, also known as the Persian Gulf (Kämpf and Sadrinasab 2006 ). The average salinity in Gulf of Oman is 36.8 ptt and can reach a maximum between 39.5 and 40.5 ppt (Wang et al. 2013 ) while the Gulf of Eden’s salinity is between 35.4 ppt and 36.5 ppt (Morcos and AbdAllah 2012 ).

Mangroves are abundant in the Middle East in various countries as shown in Fig. 1 (Oman, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, United Arabs of Emirates (UAE), Qatar, Iran, Egypt, Sudan, and Yemen) (Almahasheer 2018 ). Mangrove cover in Kuwait was found to be very small (only 0.58 km 2 in 2018 and was reduced to 0.1 km 2 in 2022), (Almahasheer 2018 ; UNESCO 2022 ) that shifted our study focus to the other countries in the Middle East. The rest of the unmentioned Middle Eastern countries either have borders with the Mediterranean Sea or are placed inland and therefore mangroves do not grow there due to:

Low tides in the Mediterranean Sea while mangroves growth is related to tidal cycles and favored in intertidal areas

The high latitude of Libyan and Egyptian coastlines with the Mediterranean Sea, above 25N, which is higher than the common zone where mangroves have spread worldwide.

Mangroves distribution in the Middle East and Egypt

Due to mangrove losses worldwide during the past 50 years (Alongi 2002 ) and with only limited number of studies giving the current status of mangrove in the Middle East, this study aimed at comprehensively assessing mangrove situation in the Middle East and Egypt in terms of available mangrove species and their distribution, mangrove habitats, level of degradation in the region, threats, mangrove rehabilitation strategies, and policies to promote mangroves restoration. The study’s conclusion aims at improving the management and conservation of Arabian mangrove ecosystems.

Mangrove habitats in the Middle East

Mangroves in the Middle East are found in several countries that share similarities in their climatic conditions such as extreme harsh and dry environments that lack freshwater input to mangrove plantations (Climate Center 2021a ). In a study by Almahasheer ( 2018 ) it was mentioned that there are only two abundant species of mangroves in the Middle East, the gray mangrove ( Avicennia marina ) and the red mangrove ( Rhizophora mucronata ), opposing to about 84 species globally because of the region’s extremely harsh environmental conditions. This resulted in a low classical diversity of native mangrove species in the region due to low species variety and their composition is highly affected by geographical locations, tidal regimes, and environmental conditions of the Middle East. The conducted study showed that Avicennia marina is the dominant specie in the region while the co-existing of these 2 species together is observed in very limited locations. However, their existence is crucial for the stability and resilience of mangrove ecosystem as they have different ecological roles and adaptations as well as enhancing the ecological functions of existing mangrove forests through providing various services like carbon sequestration, nutrient cycling, and habitat provision. Scientifically, A. marina belongs to the Acanthaceae family (Asaf et al. 2021 ) while R. mucronata belongs to the Rhizophoraceae family (Su et al. 2021 ).

Both Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata , through their unique characteristics and ecological functions, help in mitigating global climate changes through:

Sediment trapping and coastal protection: the unique dense rooting system of both species trap and stabilize sediments, including organic matter like carbon, which helps in raising soil levels and reducing coastal erosion over time. Additionally, the dense above-ground vegetation of mangrove habitats and complex roots function as a natural barrier during storms thus absorbing wave energy and impact. These mangrove species aid in shielding coastal communities, infrastructure, and ecosystems from the effects of climate change and minimizing habitat loss due to sea level rise (Asari et al. 2021 ).

Carbon sequestration and blue carbon storage: both species are blue-carbon ecosystems as they are very effective in absorbing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) with the aid of their sophisticated root systems in their biomass and soil therefore lowering the amount of greenhouse gas CO2 in the atmosphere and contributing to climate change mitigation (Moritsch et al. 2021 ). The carbon sequestration potential of pure Rhizophora mucronata and pure Avicennia marina are 2.2 and 0.8 $\text{Mg C }{\text{ha}}^{-1}{\text{year}}^{-1}$ respectively (el Hussieny et al. 2021 ).

Biodiversity support: they provide nesting habitats for various animal and plant species. The resilience and general health of the ecosystem depend on the maintenance of biodiversity inside mangroves, which in turn supports the efforts for reducing climate change (Rahman et al. 2021 ).

This study presents an in-depth review on the status of mangroves in the Middle East. Table 1 highlights the observed locations in this study, available species in each country, and total mangrove land cover. Figure 1 shows the available mangrove sites in the Middle East. Detailed discussion for each country on the status of Mangroves is given below.

Mangroves in Oman

The Middle East is mostly characterized by an arid and semi-arid environment where the climate is dry and hot speciallyOman, known as Sultanate of Oman, has dry and subtropical climate and is characterized by dusty, hot winds and summer monsoons. Generally, it has an average annual temperature that varies from 10 to 12 °C and 16°C to 18 °C in the north and south respectively while the average annual rainfall ranges from 150 to 300 mm north and 50 to 150 mm south (World Bank Group 2021a ). Its coastal line is 3,165 km long and only one species of mangroves, Avicennia marina ( A. marina ), can be found along it (Al-Nadabi and Sulaiman 2018 ). The mangroves can be found in Oman in Qurm, Muhut Island, and Shinas (Fouda and AI-Muharrami, 1996), Bandar AL Khairan (Al Jufaili et al. 2021 ), Flamingo lake, and Wadi Dayqah (Beuzen-Waller et al. 2019 ) having a total coverage of 10.9 km2 (UNESCO [ 65447 ] 2022 ). Figure 2 shows the mentioned mangrove locations in Oman. The recorded mangrove area in Oman was 1000 ha from the year 1990 till 2020 (FAO 2020g ), which compared to 2022, gives total increase in mangrove cover by 9%.

Mangrove locations in Oman on map

The climate in these areas varies as following: Qurm has a desert climate that experiences low rainfall where the average annual temperature and rainfall is 27.3 °C and 100 mm respectively (Qurm Climate, n.d.), Shinas summers are arid, long, oppressive, and partly cloudy where the temperature ranges from to 16 to 37.8 °C and rainfall from 12.7 to 17.8 mm. Bandar AL Khairan has a subtropical desert climate with yearly temperature of 28.2–35.16 °C and 10.24mm rainfall while Wadi Dayqah’s is 148 mm annually (Hieatt et al. 2010 ). Oman’s mangroves grow in groups of trees separated by halophytic species or bare soil and their height varies from 3.9 to 4.5 m (Cookson and Lepiece 1997 ); however, Gab-Alla et al. ( 2010 ) mentioned that Avicennia marina is present there on the northeast coast with fair density and 5.2 m mean height.

From the factors supporting mangroves growth in Oman, besides the A. marina ’s ability to successfully grow in harsh, arid, and high salinity environment, is having intertidal areas with gentle slow slope and that the trees are directly facing the sea. Moreover, the marine habitat around mangroves in Oman is not limited to but includes: turtles, crustaceans, shrimps, crabs, echinoderms, fish, sponges, oysters, and mollusks and the following animals exist: mammals, sand fox, Arabian red fox, birds, camels, green turtles, and the gerbil (Fouda and AI-Muharrami 1996 ). A detailed checklist for the present aquatic animals in Oman’s mangroves ecosystem was presented by (Hassan Hashemi and Salarpouri 2013 ) in their study.

Mangroves in Bahrain

Bahrain, known as Kingdom of Bahrain, has a desert climate that is extremely hot during summer but mild during winter with a pleasant weather where the annual temperature ranges from 10 to 20 °C during winter while 36 °C during summer and can go up to 38–40 °C; The average annual rainfall is 80 mm (Directorate of Environmental Assessment and Planning, 2009). The only mangrove specie that can be found in Bahrain is Avicennia marina and can be located in: Tubli Bay Coast (Naser 2016 ), Ras Sanad Mangrove Forest also known as Bahrain Mangrove Forest (Milani 2018 ), Arad Bay and Ras Hayan (Directorate of Environmental Assessment and Planning 2009 ), and the Mangrove nursery near Ras Sanad having a total coverage of 0.8 km2 (UNESCO [ 65479 ], 2022b ) as shown in Fig. 3 . The recorded mangrove area in Bahrain was 90 ha from the year 1990 till 2020 (FAO 2020a ), which compared to 2022, gives total shrinkage in mangrove cover by 11.1%.

Mangrove locations in Bahrain on map

The climate in these areas varies as Ras Sanad has annual temperature 26.9–29.7 °C and average rainfall of 5.62 mm while Tubli’s climate is very humid and hot during summer and mild and arid during winter where the average annual rainfall and temperature is 80 mm and 26.8 °C respectively. The height of the trees varies from 1 to 5.5 m with 2.7 m as an average and their locations in Bahrain have access to low salinity water that is discharged from underground springs and close farms which affects the trees growth rate as well as minimal motion of sea water (Abou Seedo et al. 2017 ).

In his study, (Naser 2016 ) showed that there are sixteen types of marine habitat in Bahrain: seagrass, rock, algae, mud, sabkha, mixed habitats, algae-rock-sand, mangrove, coral, sand, mud and sand, algae-rock-sand, deep-water mixed habitats, rock and sand, salt marsh, deep water mud, and coral-rock-sand, however the area witness animals like migratory birds, terns, herons, flamingoes, gulls, and egrets (Gillespie and Ann 2019 ). According to the number of available habitats and richness of species were not high due to high salinity of sediments and aridity (Abou Seedo et al. 2017 ).

Mangroves in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia, or Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, has a desert climate where the central region experiences extremely dry and scorching summers with temperatures ranging from 27 to 43 °C in the inland regions and 27–38 °C along the coast, however, the southwestern part of the country has a semi-arid climate. In the interior parts, winter temperatures range from 8 to 20 °C, while the Red Sea's coastal areas have experienced temperatures as high as 19–29 °C (World Bank Group 2021b ). The majority of the country receives less than 150 mm of precipitation annually, − 93 mm according to (Almazroui 2020 ), however the southwestern region receives between 400 and 600 mm. Saudi Arabia has only two species of mangroves: Avicennia marina , the most dominant species on mainland, and Rhizophora mucronata which is only found along Farasan Archipelago (S. M. Saifullah 1997 ). They can be found in the following locations: Tarut Bay (Abdalla 2022 ), Farasan Isalnd (Elbanna & Ali 2021 ), Mangrove forest North Sanabis, Mangrove forest South Sanabis, Abu-Marzouk Island, Kambodi Island, Mangrove Eco Park in Ras Tanura (Saudi Gazette 2012 ), Ras Hatiba (Mandura et al. 1988 ), Saihat Mangrove Forest, Darin Mangrove Forest, and Sfwa (Almahasheer et al. 2013 ), Abu Ali Island (Maneja et al. 2020 ), and Umm Ruma Island, Dugm Sabq, Gama'an Island, Shibara Island, Umm Al-Qandal Island, Umm Al-Rubais Island, Ras Umm Al-Rubais, Al-Gahaf, Qandal Forest, Solain Island, and Zifaf Island (PERSGA/GEF 2004 ) thus they are non-continuously occurring along the Saudi Arabian Red Sea coast line (S. M. Saifullah 1997 ) and having a 204 km 2 total area (UNESCO [ 65479 ], 2022a ). Figure 4 highlights the mentioned mangrove locations. The recorded mangrove area in Saudi Arabia was 158,000 ha between the years 1990 and 2020 (FAO 2020c ), which compared to 2022, shows degradation in mangrove cover by 87%.

Mangrove locations in Saudi Arabia on map

These areas have climate that slightly varies: in Tarut Bay the annual average temperature is 26.6–28 °C with 35.6 °C and 20.1 °C as the highest and lowest recorded values (Abdalla 2022 ) while it sometimes experiences no rainfall but can go up to 0.5 mm. In Farasan Islands, the annual average temperature is 30 °C and in the summer can go up to 40–44 °C during daytime and 2–3 °C during night (Khedher et al. 2022 ) while the annual rainfall is usually heavy, dense, and ranges from 100 to 450 mm (Elbanna and Ali 2021 ). The rest of mangrove locations resemble similar climatic conditions to Tarut Bay due to geography. Mangroves grow in their communities in the form of single plant rows that ranges the sandy shores where the tall trees can be found close to the sea edge with an average height of 2.46 m that can go up to 4 m while the dwarf 1-m high trees can be observed towards the land and their average height is 0.63 m (Mandura et al. 1988 ).

The following characteristic factors to Mangrove locations in Saudi Arabia support their growth: presence of high nutrients in water due to intrusion of low salinity water into the Red Sea from the Gulf of Aden, small tidal amplitude (50 cm), presence of Lagoons that provide soft bottom rich in nutrients due to decomposition of organic matter, transport of algae to mangrove sites during winter which contribute to organic biomass & energy budget of mangroves ecosystem, and fixation of elemental nitrogen by Cyanobacteria thus contributing to overall nitrogen input of the ecosystem (Saifullah 1997 ). Moreover, S. M. Saifullah ( 1997 ) also highlighted some conditions which favored mangroves growth in the southern area of Saudi Arabia to its northern part like: having better temperature due to its location within the tropical belt and better rainfall as well as runoff due to large number of surrounding wadis, availability of microscopic organisms which increase the photosynthetic area, and the existent dead coral reef rocks are superimposed with a thick layer of soft mud which does not negatively impact mangroves growth. Mandura et al. ( 1988 ) recorded 40 species of algae there including red algae, blue-green algae, green algae, brown algae, cyanobacteria in the sabakhas, seagrass, halophytes, and animals from the following classes: coelenterata, arthropoda, Mollusca, aves. Arabian Gazelle, sea birds, shorebirds, mudskipper, fish, prawn, and migratory birds like Black headed Gulls, Egrets, Boobies, Terns, Pelicans, and sooty Gulls were also observed (Presidency of Meteorology and Environment (PME), 2005 ).

Mangroves in United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates, known as UAE, has an arid desert climate and the average annual temperature during summer and winter ranges from 32 to 37.2 °C and 16.4 to 24 °C respectively and can reach 50 °C during summer days while the average annual rainfall ranges between 140 and 200 mm up to 350 mm in some mountainous areas (World Bank Group 2021c ). Only one species of mangroves is available in UAE, Avicennia marina , however Rhizophora mucronata species was available in the historical times but disappeared (Saenger et al. 2004 ). Mangroves can be found across UAE in: Khor Al Beidah Wetlands in Umm Al Quwain, Al Zorah Natural Reserve in Ajman, Grundfos Mangrove Plants, (Mangrove and Al Hafiya Protected Area in Khor Kalba and Sir Bu Nair) in Sharjah, (Saadiyat Island, Jubail mangrove park, Marawah Island, Bul Syayeef Protected Area, Ras Ghurab, Eastern Mangrove National Park, Ras Ghanada, Abu Dhabi Mangroves, and Sir Bani Yas Island) in Abu Dhabi, Ras Al Khor Wildlife Sanctuary in Dubai, Al-Qurum visitor center, RAK Mangroves, and Eastern Mangroves promenade where the mangroves cover a total area of 68 km 2 (UNESCO [ 65478 ] 2022 ) as can be seen in Fig. 5 . The recorded mangrove area in United Arab Emirates was 3800 ha and 4300 ha in the years 1990 and 2022 respectively (FAO 2020d ), which compared to 2022, shows a 58.1% increase in total mangrove cover.

Mangrove locations in United Arab Emirates on map

A study by Saenger et al. ( 2004 ) highlighted some of the climate variations in these areas where in Ras Alkhaima the average annual temperature in winter and summer ranges from 12.8 to 24.4 °C and 30 to 42.2 °C respectively while average rainfall is 124.4 mm annually. Dubai has long, arid, oppressive summers that are partly cloudy while its winters are dry and clear; the temperature ranges annually from 30 to 41.1 °C during summer and 14.4 to 23.9 °C during winter while the mean annual rainfall is 81 mm. As for Sir Bani Yas Island, the average temperature ranges from 19 to 37 annually and average rainfall is 9.9 mm/year. Abu Dhabi’s annual mean rainfall is 65.5 mm. UAE mangroves have a patchy distribution where their density increases in the east and gradually decreases to the west (Moore et al. 2013 ) and the young trees are averaged with a 3-m height while the mature ones are usually 5–6 m high and can reach 10 m (Saenger et al. 2004 ). UAE’s natural mangroves are rich in marine habitat as they include sea snakes, shrimps, crabs, sea breams, turtles, Hooded Oyster, and snapper. UAE mangroves distribution increases at areas with higher rainfalls and temperatures and decreases with aridity and location topography (Al Habshi et al. 2007 ). Moreover, the following animals can be observed: Western Reef Heron, Mottled Crab, Greater Flamingo, Kalba Collared Kingfisher, White Spotted Grouper, Greater Spotted Eagle, bream and wild foxes, eagles, sooty falcons, and green turtles (Emirates Nature 2023 ).

Mangroves in Qatar

Qatar peninsula has dry, extremely hot summers with high humidity and Shamal winds where the average temperature is 42 °C and can go up to 50 °C contrary to winters which are comfortable and the average annual temperature ranges from 22 °C to 32 °C but can drop below 15 during night; average rainfall is 75.2 mm annually (Ajjur and Al-Ghamdi 2022 ) . Avicennia marina is the mangrove specie that can be found in Qatar (Abdel-Razik 1991 ) in the following locations: Al Thakira mangrove forest, Al Ruwais, Simaisma, Fuwairit, Purple Island, and Al Dhakira Mangroves with a total area coverage of 12.3 km 2 (UNESCO [ 65483 ], 2022 ). Mangrove sites in Qatar are shown in Fig. 6 . The recorded mangrove area in Qatar was 500 ha from the year 1990 till 2005 (FAO 2020b ), which compared to 2022, shows an increase in mangrove cover by 23%.

Mangrove locations in Qatar on map

Al Ruwais summer mean temperature is from 20–35 °C and can reach 40 °C while winter’s is from 22 to 29 °C and the average annual rainfall is 62 mm while Simaisma’s annual temperature ranges between 25.2 and 43.3 with an average of 34 and 93 mm is the annual rainfall (Supplementary Materials: Year of Plantation, Hydrological Parameters, Slope, and Elevation Profiles of Mangrove Sites in Qatar, n.d.). The average annual temperature in Fuwairit is in the range of 31.1–38.9 °C during summer and 15–21.1 °C during winter and the rainfall is 12.7 mm mostly during March. Planted mangroves height vary from 1 to 3 m while the natural stands range from 1 up to 6 m (Al-Khayat and Balakrishnan 2014 ).

From the factors enhancing mangroves growth in the Qatar is that mangrove locations receive fine sediments with high organic matter content through long narrow runnels from the hinterland, there is mud deposition accumulating in the area behind the tidal delta in the basin, and there is freshwater seepage from underground water (Abdel-Razik 1991 ). Fishes, gastropods, mudskippers, crabs, and shrimps are among the marine habitat that can be found around Qatar’s mangroves while these animals can be observed: Western Reef Heron, Mottled Crab, Greater Flamingo, White Spotted Grouper, Greater Spotted Eagle, bream and wild foxes, Green Turtles, and eagles and sooty falcons but they are rarely spotted.

Mangroves in Iran

Qatar peninsula has dry, extremely hot summers with high humidity and Shamal winds where the average temperature isIran, known as the Islamic Republic of Iran, has annual temperature averages during summers and winters between 25 and 35 °C and 15 and 25 °C respectively but might exceed 40 °C in south and east areas in summer or drop to 10 °C in winter at night while the average annual precipitation is 250 mm (Climate Center 2021b ). Only 2 mangrove species can be found in Iran: Avicennia marina is the dominant while Rhizophora mucronata can only be found in the Sirik region (Zahed et al. 2010 ). Iranian mangroves can be found in Bushehr province (Mangrove Jungle and Assaluyeh Mangrove Forest), Sistan and Balouchestan province, and Hormuzgan Province (Mangrove Forest Tabl, Hara Mangrove forest protected area, Mangrove Forests, Forest Park mangrove) (Zahed et al. 2010 ), Gwatre Bay, Qeshm Island, and Khuran Strait (Milani et al. 2013 ), and in Mel-e-Gonzeh Protected Area, Jalabi and Hassan-Langi, Tiyab and Kolahi, and Sirik as well (Farshid PerciaVista et al. 2022 ) with a 192 km 2 total area coverage (UNESCO [65507], 2022b ) as shown in Fig. 7 . The recorded mangrove area in Iran was 25,760 ha and 19,230 ha in the years 1990 and 2020 respectively (FAO 2020f ), which compared to 2022, gives a slight shrinkage in mangrove cover by 0.2%. Sistan and Balouchestan has a desert climate with extremely hot summers and frosted winters with a 13.76 mm annual average rainfall and 19.76–32.1 °C temperature range while annual average temperature and rainfall in Hormuzgan are 26.09–31.4 and 16.41 mm respectively. The yearly average temperatures in Bushehr range from 30 °C to 37.2 °C and 12.2 °C to 18.3 °C during summers and winters respectively while the rainfall ranges from 12.7 to 45.7 mm. Iranian mangrove trees have an average height of 3.54 m and various marine habitat and animals were observed there: Sea fishes, prawn and crabs, sea snake, sea turtle, and marine mammal, over 100 species sea and shoreline birds, 37 zooplankton groups, and 51 genera of phytoplankton (Zahed et al. 2010 ).

Mangrove locations in Iran on map

Mangroves in Egypt

Egypt’s summer average annual temperatures reach 38 °C up to 43 °C where the northern areas experience cooler temperatures with a maximum of 32 °C like the Mediterranean coast while it can go up to 49 °C in the western and southern deserts. In winters, the average yearly temperature is 14 °C and the rainfall has a yearly average of 51 mm (FAO 2016 ). Two mangrove species were observed in Egypt: Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata (A. Abdel-Hamid et al. 2018 ) and they can be found in Safaga, Al-Qusair, North Islands, Marsa Alam, and Marsa Hemara, Ras Mohamed, Shalateen and Halayeb, and El-Gouna (A. Afefe 2021 ),Hamata (Madkour et al. 2020 ), Nabq protectorate (Galal 1999 ), Wadi Lahami (Hering et al. 2017 ), Wadi El Gemal (Khaleal et al. 2008 ), Abu Minqar Islands (Saleh 2007 ), Gebel Elba (Afefe et al. 2021 ), Hurghada 0(el Hussieny et al. 2021 ), Mersa El-Madfa and Mersa Halaib (Hussien Shaltout et al. 2006 ), Al-Qulaan and Marsa Shajra (Abd-El Monsef et al. 2017 ), and Shura Al-Manquata, Shura Al-Rowaisseya, Mersa Abu Zabad, and Shura Al-Gharqana (PERSGA/GEF., 2004) with a total coverage of 5.1 km 2 (UNESCO [65507], 2022a ). Figure 8 shows these locations on map. The recorded mangrove area in Egypt was 390 ha and 500 ha in the years 1990 and 2020 respectively (FAO 2020e ), which compared to 2022, shows an increase in the mangrove cover by 2%. A. marina distribrution is most abundant along the Red Sea coast line starting from Nabq (Rasul and Stewart 2015 ) while R. mucronata predominates from Mersa El-Madfa to Mersa Halaib (K. A. Abdel-Hamid et al. 2007 ).

Mangrove locations in Egypt on map

The climate varies in these areas as they are distributed along the Red Sea coast. Nabq has an average rainfall less than 100 mm/year while the air temperature ranges between 14 °C and 45 °C annually (Galal 1999 ). Hurghada’s dry desert climate results in temperature variations where daytimes are hot with up to 42 °C temperature while nights are cold with 18 °C temperature (Mahmoud et al. 2018 ), annual temperature of the Red Sea ranges between 21 and 28 °C with an average of 24 °C (Egyptian Government 2015 ), while the average rainfall is 76 mm annually (Unicef, n.d.). Wadi El-Gemal average temperatures are between 33 °C during summer and changes to 19.8 °C during winter and average rainfall is 17.4 mm on annual basis (Khaleal et al. 2008 ). Hamata has a similar climate to Wadi El-Gemal. The highest temperature in Quasir is 29 °C while the lowest is 17 °C where the average annual temperature and rainfall are 24.7 and 4 mm respectively (Climate Data n.d. 2023 ).

Egyptian mangroves exist in small patches that are few square kilometers wide (Abd-El Monsef et al. 2017 ) and the trees usually survive in shallow waters like lagoons or sand bars close to the shoreline (Abdel-Hamid et al. 2018 ) where they rarely grow in broad forests but grow in narrow clusters on the offshore and nearshore islands and fringe channels and tidal creeks (Rasul and Stewart 2015 ). They usually grow in one of three forms: in a sea channel, in an enclosed bay that is protected by a coralline ridge, or in a community form that grows to an extensive intertidal flat (A. Afefe 2021 ). Trees height ranges from 5 to 7 m which gives them small shrub-like look and their width varies from 50 to 100 m (Rasul and Stewart 2015 ).

There are four environmental conditions that affects mangroves growth in Egypt: water characteristics, man-made modification, climatic conditions, and geomorphological aspects of the islands, lagoons, and bays of the Red Sea (A. Afefe 2021 ). Egypt’s annual temperature, having a minimum of 20 °C, is one of the most important factors impacting mangroves growth in Egypt as these trees prefer warmer climates. The marine habitat existing around the Egyptian mangroves include fauna like barnacles, fish, sea snakes, crustaceans, molluscs and flora like algae. Moreover, the following terrestrial biota can be observed including insects, camels, snails, spiders, crabs, and various bird species like Sooty Falcons, Sooty Gulls, and Ospreys (Sandilyan and Kathiresan 2012 ; Shobrak and Aloufi 2014 ; Moustafa et al. 2023 ).

Mangroves in Sudan

Sudan has hot summers with mean annual temperature between 26 °C and 32 °C and can reach 43 °C in the northern regions while precipitation varies geographically: southern regions receive 1500 mm, central regions receive from 200 to 700 mm, while the northern regions are always dry. Currently, only A. marina exists, however both Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora mucronata species were reported to exist in the past and R. mucronata were observed near the Egyptian borders, north of Halaib (PERSGA/GEF 2004 ). Mangroves in Sudan can be found in Mohammed Qol, Arakiyai, Halut, Klanieb, Mersa Atta, Fagum-Lagagengeeb, Haydob, Sheikh Saad, Ashat, Mukawwar Island, and Agig (PERSGA/GEF 2004 ) as can be seen in Fig. 9 with a total land cover of 9.8 km 2 (UNESCO [ 66310 ] 2022a ).

Mangrove locations in Sudan on map

Mangrove habitats along the Red Sea shores of Sudan were classified according to their morphological behavior and habitat into classes: (1) small mangrove aggregations, (2) off-shore islet forests, (3) shore-line forests, and (4) relic thin populations. Mangrove stands are small and thin, accordingly their height and width ranges from 1 to 2 m and 15 to 300 m respectively. They are abundant near creeks and fringing tidal inlets, on near-shore islets, and along shorelines. Sudan’s southern coast receives great amounts of freshwater influx from surface runoff which explains the bigger and denser stands, however taller Avicennia marina trees can be observed in some northern areas as they receive freshwater seepage from underground and have sandier, better oxygenated substrates (Mohamed 1984 ). Mangrove areas in Sudan include various habitats: tidal inlets, seagrass beds, bays, intertidal flats, coral Reefs, rocky shores, and saltmarshes. Land animals are also dominant including: camels, insects, roosting flocks of fruit bats, and fishing and insectivorous birds (Osman and Elbashier 2019 ).

Mangroves in Yemen

Yemen is an arid sub-tropical country with annual mean summer and winter temperatures of 25–35 °C and 15–22.5 °C respectively and average rainfall is 39 mm annually. Avicennia marina is the dominant mangrove species, however Rhizophora mucronata coexists with it in two stands near Al-Hudaydah and Kamaran Island. Mangrove trees in Yemen in Midi, Al-Habl, Mangrove Garden in Yemen, Al-Buhays, Al-Luhayah, Kamran Island, Al-Urj, north of Al-Hudaydah, Mugamalah islet, Hudaydah islets, between El-Rowais and Yakhtul, between Al-Kadaha and Al-Ubaidah, and El-Ghurairah at Bab al-Mandab (PERSGA/GEF 2004 ). These locations are shown in Fig. 10 and they have a 9.3 km 2 total land cover (UNESCO [ 66310 ] 2022b ). Yemen mangroves grow near channels and inlets, shorelines, and off-shore islands as thin forests and they are commonly found on the north coast rather than the south and central coasts. Mangroves distribution can be classified based on their ecological features into four areas: (1) South of Al-Hudaydah to Bab al-Mandab area: mangroves are affected by the high aridity and shoreline topography so the stands are thin and separated, (2) Al-Urj to Al-Hudaydah: stands are confined to small islets and dew tidal inlets and their size is limited, (3) Al-Khawbah to Ras Isa: mangroves density is small and interrupted by large shore areas, and (4) Midi to Al-Luhayah: highest mangrove density can be found here leading to a semi-continuous belt by the shore (PERSGA/GEF 2004 ).

Mangrove locations in Yemen on map

Human impacts and local threats to mangroves in the Middle East

Despite their importance and adaptation to harsh environmental conditions, mangroves are subjected to various threats that impact their survival. They can be classified into natural and anthropogenic threats.

Natural threats

Sea level rise: rising sea levels threatens mangroves health by leading to increased salinity levels and tidal inundation which inhibits photosynthesis and tree productivity thus shortening its life span (Shehadi 2015 ). Climate change was highlighted as the major threat to mangroves thrive in Iran (Zahed et al. 2010 ).

Storms and cyclones: serious storms and cyclones can occur in the Middle East, especially during the monsoon season, leading to storm urges, heavy rainfall, and strong winds. These weather events can physically harm the mangrove environment by uprooting the trees and causing erosion.

Extreme temperatures: high temperatures are common in the Middle East, and extreme heat events beyond mangroves tolerance ranges reduce photosynthesis and cause leaf damage thus decreasing the overall mangrove health (Adame et al. 2021 ).

Sedimentation and erosion: mangroves are susceptible to erosion and sedimentation by natural processes and their roots may become buried by excessive sedimentation, which will restrict their access to nutrients and oxygen. Also, sediment required for mangrove development and stability may be lost due to erosion (Nardin et al. 2021 ).

Salinity fluctuations: mangroves have evolved to withstand a certain range of salinity. However, their health may be impacted by salinity variations that occur naturally, such as tidal cycles or intense weather. While abrupt drops in salinity might restrict the availability of nutrients, abrupt rises in salinity can cause salt stress (Chen and Ye 2014 ).

Disease and pests: a wide range of pests and diseases affects mangroves and they can be impacted in terms of growth and survival by bacterial, fungal, and insect infestations. For instance, middle eastern mangroves have been reported to be impacted by the fungus causing "mangrove dieback" (Osorio et al. 2017 ).

Anthropogenic threats

Shrimp farming: the rapid expansion of shrimp aquaculture as an industry is a main reason for mangroves loss globally as their wet lands are cleared and converted to artificial shrimp ponds. This alters mangrove ecosystems resulting in changing the hydrology, introducing non-native diseases and species, using wild fish as feed, losing various socio-economic and ecological ecosystem functions, capturing wild shrimp, polluting the environment due to effluent disposal, and losing livelihoods (Ashton 2008 ).

Human activity: like reclaiming land for infrastructure and urbanization, land conversion to agriculture fields, aquaculture, loading and shipping operations, waste landfilling, and sewage discharge which all threaten mangroves health in the area (Milani 2018 ). This was highly observed in Tubli Bay in Bahrain.

Overexploitation and unsustainable fishing practices: these practices threaten mangrove ecosystem as overexploitation of mangrove resources, like timber, as well as overharvesting of fish and crabs associated with mangroves with unsuitable fishing tools can disrupt the food chain and reduce biodiversity.

Invasive species: introducing invasive animal and plant species threatens native mangrove ecosystems as they disrupt ecosystem dynamics, reduce biodiversity, and outcompete native mangrove species (Biswas et al. 2018 ).

Uncontrolled camel grazing: highly observed in Gebel Elba and Wadi El Gemal in Egypt (Afefe 2021 ).

Irresponsible tourism: using mangroves for tourism and recreation negatively impacts mangroves as tourists disturb mangroves wildlife specifically birds, collect souvenirs like seeds or leaves, and trample in the sensitive pneumatophores. Mangrove growth can be hindered by Littering and solid waste dumping specifically cans and plastic bags as they release pollutants that could harm the health of mangroves and smother leaves and pneumatophores (Spurgeon 2002 ).

Coastal development: industrialization, land reclamation for urbanization, tourism infrastructure, and rapid coastal development have resulted in the degradation of mangrove habitats.

Impact of excessive coastal development on mangrove losses in UAE Paleologos et al. ( 2019 ) focused on multiple factors that are threatening mangroves growth in the Abu Dhabi. First, as a result of the increased desalination activities in the region, the coastal salinity increased which created hyper-saline environment that requires high suction from the mangrove roots for freshwater extraction which stunts the trees growth. Second, seawater temperature has increased by 7–8 °C due to high energy production and desalination practices which decreased the total dissolved oxygen in the water and thus directly impacting mangroves survival. Third, cement factories are placed near mangrove areas in Abu Dhabi which emits heavy metals like Pb, Ni, Cd, Hg, Sulphur and nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and particulates into the atmosphere which deposits in the water bodies eventually thus negatively interfering with mangroves ecosystem. Fourth, the rapid small islands development in UAE as well as bridges construction for their connection will stress the existing mangrove ecosystems due to microplastic and zinc introduction to the water from brake pads and rubber tires on the roads. Finally, accelerated artificial canals creation changed the shallow lagoons’ water currents which increased algae development in the water due to its slow movement as well as burial of some mangrove roots as a result of dredging activities.

Pollution and oil spills: mangrove ecosystems can get contaminated by pollution from a variety of sources, such as oil spills, phosphate balls, agricultural runoff, sewage runoff, and industrial waste. Excessive nutrient inputs can cause eutrophication, which can affect mangrove trees by creating algal blooms and oxygen depletion. Oil pollution is the main reason for mangrove degradation in the Persian Gulf as it affects water quality and contaminate mangrove habitats (Zahed et al. 2010 ). The following is a case study about the impact of oil pollution on Saudi Arabian mangroves.

Oil toxicology effect on mangroves in Saudi Arabia Farooqui et al. ( 2015 ) has reported that A. marina seedlings are very sensitive to oil exposure as a field study conducted with them showed 96% death rate when the seedlings were subjected to crude oil transported by weather resulting in yellow curled leaves. Oil spills could have a number of long-term effects on mangroves as under stress they may exhibit significant variations in either their reproductive timing strategy or growth rate. In order to withstand contamination's physical or chemical effects, they can develop additional morphological adaptations. The Arabian Gulf’s mangrove ecosystem was primarily impacted by the significant oil spill caused by the Gulf War as besides having indirect impact on mangroves habitat, it can directly kill it. The spilled oil in 1991 during the Gulf War left the Saudi Arabian Gulf with a black layer of tar along its mangrove cover as the layer was made at a higher altitude than the normal soil temperature and the ecological impacts are still under study.

Mangrove rehabilitation strategies in the Middle East

Mangrove forests are disappearing as the global cover was estimated to be 19.8 million km2 in 1980 but has currently fallen to 15 million km 2 (Kathiresan 2008 ). Rehabilitation is defined the partial or full replacement of the functional or structural features of an ecosystem that have been lost or destroyed or replacing these features with alternative ones that have better ecological, social, or economic value; Restoration, which is a unique case of rehabilitation, is the process of bringing an ecosystem back to its original state as closely as possible (Field 1999 ). People have gained interest in rehabilitation because of the increase in environmental awareness over the past thirty years as well as the fact that the world's mangrove resources have recently decreased due to the pressures of food production, wood chipping, industrial and urban development, and population growth. Loss of natural mangrove vegetation can happen due to wrong land use or climatic impacts (Field 1999 ). Not to specify, but countries like United States of America (USA) enacted multiple local ordinances and state laws for mangroves protection as a result for environmental movements and the requests of environmental activists concerned about biodiversity protection, conservation, and sustainable ecosystem use (Melana et al. 2000 ).

In recent years, a number of popular mangrove restoration strategies have drawn interest and demonstrated promise. Here are some examples:

Community-Based Mangrove Restoration : using this strategy, local communities are actively involved in the restoration of mangroves. It acknowledges the significance of local expertise, involvement, and ownership in reaching successful restoration results. Community based restoration initiatives frequently include sustainable management techniques, livelihood enhancement, and capacity building (Teutli-Hernández et al. 2021 ).

Ecological Mangrove Restoration (EMR) : the goal of EMR is to restore mangrove ecosystems' natural ecological processes and services. It involves simulating the structure of a natural forest, planting a variety of native mangrove species, and taking hydrological dynamics into account. The objectives of EMR are to increase self-sustainability, improve ecological services, and increase biodiversity (Aheto et al. 2016 ).

Natural regeneration : the main goal of natural regeneration is to allow mangroves to recolonize degraded regions naturally on their own, without any human intervention. This method is based on preserving the surviving mangrove stands, reducing disturbances, and making sure the suitable environmental conditions for natural seed germination and distribution are available (Kairo et al. 2020 ).

Blue Carbon and Climate Change Mitigation : mangroves play a significant role in reducing the effects of climate change because of their exceptional capacity to capture and store carbon. High carbon stock locations are prioritized in this strategy for conservation and restoration while taking into consideration the role of mangroves in sequestering carbon (Murray et al. 2023 ).

Successful ambitious global mangrove restoration goals will positively benefit biodiversity, carbon sequestration, coastal protection, and fisheries production. It is crucial to keep in mind that small-scaled mangrove restoration projects, although being better suited for community management, might not produce benefits at landscape size while on the other hand, large-scale restoration programs failed more often. The solution is adopting sustainable mangrove restoration techniques that boosts the efficacy of smaller projects and reduces the risks associated with the bigger projects. The key is to invest in capacity building of institutes and communities as well as connecting suitable investors with the restoration opportunities (Lovelock et al. 2022 ).

In the light of all that, it was important to display the successful mangrove rehabilitation and plantation initiatives that took place all over the Middle East.

Mangrove rehabilitation initiatives

Mangrove rehabilitation in oman.

An action plan has been launched by the Environment Authority (EA) to plant 1.5 million mangrove seeds in Khor Ghawi in Wilayat Al Jazir and Al Wusta's Wilayat Mahout Wetland Reserve in Oman in July and August 2022 as a part of the national initiative to plant 10 million trees. The authority intends to plant mangroves in the aforementioned locations to enhance marine organism biodiversity, be a natural habitat for endemic and migratory birds, reduce carbon footprint, and protect lagoons from erosion. During the see ds cultivation in July, the approved international sites will be used to determine the target sites' tidal conditions for determining the precise planting times. Half a million seeds were planted on 29th July 2022 in Khor Ghawi in Wilayat of Al-Jazer, then a million seeds were planted from 31st July to 11th August 2022 in the Wetland Reserve with a 30 cm separation distance. Eventually, the planted area will contain 13.5 hectares of mangroves with a rate of 1000 seeds per 300 m (Oman Observer 2022 ).

The sultanate has already been planting massive amounts of mangroves for over 17 years (UN Environment Program 2018 ). Oman mentioned in their master plan for management, conservation, and restoration of Mangroves that there are 13 possible locations suitable for mangroves plantation; There will be temporary nurseries established for seeds plantation with various annual capacities: 5000 pots in Mahawt Island, 5000 pots/year in Khawr Shinas, and 15,000 pots/year in Ras Al Had (Pacific Consultants International and Appropriate Agriculture International Co., 2004 ) In preparation for COP27, Oman Environment Authority planted 754,000 seedlings in 32 locations along the coast by the end of July 2022 for supporting the following goals: positively impacting the livelihood of communities located near the project location, protecting endangered fish species, restoring mangroves and capturing greenhouse gases, increasing fish stock, and most importantly achieving 2023 Sustainable Development agenda goals (Towards COP27 2022 ).

Mangrove rehabilitation in Bahrain

Back in 1988, Bahrain declared mangroves of Ras Sanad a Wildlife Reserve and plantation activities for mangroves restoration were carried on but their success was limited (Milani 2018 ). In 2013, Bahrain initiated the Mangrove Planting Project (MPP) which involved transplanting mangrove seedlings to different locations across the nation where two plant nurseries were established to make this easier: an inside and outside self-irrigation nursery (UN-Bahrain 2023 ). Following COP26, Bahrain decided to quadruple its mangrove cover to reach 3.6 million trees by 2035 in accordance with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to achieve the conference goals following a methodology that starts with surveying the country for potential suitable locations for mangroves growth, partnering and coordinating with stakeholders for establishing new nurseries, then planning to accelerate the seed collection and potting process. This will be achievable through a sequence of steps: (1) seeds collection from Tubli Bay, (2) seeds potting in the inside and outside nurseries, (3) seeds transportation previously to established nurseries, and (4) seedlings transportation to the previously selected locations (UN-Bahrain 2023 ). Moreover, the Kingdom has succeeded in achieving 100% of the annual afforestation goal, by planting 110,000 mangrove seedlings, and about 140,000 trees in several governorates.

Mangrove rehabilitation in Saudi Arabia

In parallel with the launch of the "International Day for Preserving the Ecosystem of Mangroves" in Jubail Industrial City, the National Center for Vegetation Coverage Development and Desertification Control announced the signing of four afforestation contracts for a period of two years each. The purpose of these contracts is to produce and plant 2,200,000 mangrove trees on the northern and southern coasts of the Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf as well as providing other services such as fencing and care for the planted trees. The center had announced the planting of about one million mangrove trees within the Heritage Village and Al-Sawarmeh projects in Jazan. Moreover, The Kingdom aims to plant more than 100 million mangrove trees in the coming years, as part of Saudi Vision 2030 and mitigate the effects of climate change. In the future, it aspires to grow 10 billion mangrove trees.

Aramco company has prepared a program to rehabilitate mangrove forests to the Kingdom's white sand beaches where the program is a living defense against desertification and the restoration will create a huge natural carbon dioxide sink. Aramco began planting its first mangrove seedlings in 1993 in Abu Ali Island, and in 2020 it planted 2 million trees as part of its projects to reduce climate change (Maneja et al. 2020 ). It has also planted more than 4.3 million mangrove trees in sites along the coasts of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea with the support of thousands of volunteers from both company and community (Pinheiro 2020 ). Currently, two million mangrove seedlings are being planted in the city of Yanbu. This initiative was part of a study commissioned by the Research Institute at King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals to re-establish mangrove forests along the shores of the Arabian Gulf. All partners questioned whether the mangroves would be a success, and now the northern shores of the Dahna desert are home to mangrove forests as a living proof for the project’s success.

Mangrove rehabilitation in United Arab Emirates

UAE has boosted its ambition to expand mangrove forests by boosting the mangrove planting target in its second National Determined Contribution (NDC) under the Paris Agreement from 30 to 100 million trees by 2030. The country is already a home to 60 million mangrove trees which form forests spanning an area of 183 km 2 and capture 43,000 tons of carbon dioxide annually. With the additional plantation of 100 million trees, UAE mangrove forests will cover 483 km 2 and sequester approximately 115,000 tons of carbon dioxide annually. Moreover, UAE organizes many activities that involve community participation in mangrove seedlings plantation and then taking a cruise to enjoy the beauty of the trees. Highlighting their activities and initiatives, more than 100 NYUAD community members gathered during a day in a unique ecosystem near Jebel Ali to plant 5,000 mangrove trees in less than an hour. This initiative lined with the UAE's national goal announced at COP26: planting 100 million mangroves by 2030. Their efforts did not stop here as Abu Dhabi has succeeded in planting one million mangrove seeds in various locations around the harbor in the Al Dhafra region using drones, as part of the first phase of a mangroves drone planting project in support of the Abu Dhabi Mangroves Initiative with a 48% success rate. This Initiative was announced in February 2021 during the visit of His Royal Highness Prince William, Duke of Cambridge to the UAE.

Mangrove rehabilitation in Qatar

Over the past few years, environmental officials from the environmental department in Qatar have succeeded in doubling the area of mangroves to 9 km 2 about three years ago to 14 km 2 in their cultivation areas on the country's shores along the Gulf resulting in 55 percent increased rate in its area. The Ministry of Environment and Climate Change planted mangroves in 4 areas on the northern and eastern coast after it was limited to the Al Khor and Al Thakhira areas. There are now different sites where mangroves are planted in large areas estimated at thousands of hectares, as mangroves have succeeded in each of Ruwais, Umm Al-Houl, Fuwairit and Ras Kitchen. The country aimed at planting 1 million mangrove trees by 2022 and 10 million trees by 2030. Al-Khayat and Balakrishnan ( 2014 ) documented mangrove planted locations in Qatar (Fuwairit, Simaisma, Zekreet, and Al Mafjar).

Mangrove rehabilitation in Iran

Iran is planting mangrove seedlings on 86 hectares of coastal land across the Bandar Length port city as part of its expanding agenda. Hormozgan in Iran has the most mangrove forests among the Arab Gulf countries and it supports almost 93% of Iran’s mangroves reaching 10,305.2 hectares (Erfanifard et al. 2022 ). Moreover, Iran occupies the 43rd place in the world in terms of mangrove forests. In 1991 and 1993, some mangrove reforestation was carried out on approximately 400 ha of land in the Persian Gulf and Oman Sea coastal areas and then Khouran Straits area was protected under various reserves. The Ramsar site was established in 1975, the UNESCO (MAB) Biosphere Reserve was established in 1976, and the "Important Bird Area" was designated by BirdLife International in 1994 to protect the entire Khouran Straits region (Mangroves of Asia, 1980-2005: Country Reports, 2007 ). A study conducted by Milani et al. ( 2013 ) showed that the growth in Iranian mangrove landcover took place between 1973 and 2010.

Mangrove rehabilitation in Egypt

Multiple mangrove rehabilitation initiatives started in Egypt beginning 2007. The FAO started planting R. mucronata seedlings in 2007, and then ITTO and ASRT continued mangrove plantations in Egypt in 2010 and 2017, respectively (MALR et al. 2009 ; Spurgeon 2002 ). These plantations have become trees now and are currently at different stages of age, heights, and density and can be seen at Hamata, Egypt. The FAO focused on identifying suitable sites for mangrove plantation specifically community-based rehabilitation, and several sites were recommended on Red Sea Marine Parks (Hamata’s mangrove cluster, Sharm El-Qebly, and Wadi Lahmi), Nabq Protected Area (Marsa Abo Zabad, Shora Al Marqautta, Al Garghana, and Shora Al Rowaisseya), and Elba Protectorate (El-Hamirah and Adal Deep El-Hamirah) (Spurgeon 2002 ). The project’s specific objective was to carry out studies and establish pilot projects on the sustainable use, conservation, and rehabilitation of mangroves in order to acquire the experience needed for the creation and implementation of a national mangrove conservation and development program. The ITTO started their plantation program in June 2003 where the project lasted for 36 months and succeeded in adding a total of 125,500 square meters (31.3 acres) of cultivated area for mangrove expansion, putting 7.5 acres into operation for agricultural self-renewal in the "Ariar Valley", transplanting 30,000 A. marina variety of mangrove from the existing nurseries, and planting R. mucronata variety in Hamata and El Quseir (MALR et al. 2009 ).

The MERS project, developing a participatory mangrove ecosystem restoration model as a nature-based solution to climate change, is an Egypt based project handled by the Center for Applied Research on the Environment and Sustainability (CARES) at the American University in Cairo (AUC) which aims at contributing to sustainable food production, climate resilience, and reducing the barriers within the developing communities. The project duration is five years and MERS main activities include plantation, restoration, and regeneration of 10,000 new mangrove seedling each year in selected degraded mangroves sites along the Red Sea coast line.

Mangroves rehabilitation policies in the Middle East

Not only the Middle Eastern countries but the entire international community need to make joint efforts and a firm commitment to reverse the loss of critically important mangrove habitats worldwide. These efforts will require all countries in the region to work together and with some of current global leaders such as the Conservation International, the Nature Conservancy, and the World Wildlife Fund who appear to be making genuine efforts in providing skills, drive, leadership, and developing and promoting policies for climate mitigation at global level and help countries to implement practices to contain global temperature increase to 1.4°C. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has played a key and critical role in promoting the restoration and replanting of mangroves in coastal areas. Therefore, before proposing some of the innovative policies for mangrove restorations in the Middle East, it is good to learn from other case studies in the world.

In this section, we will share case studies from two countries, namely Belize and Bahrain. In a recent study by TNC (2021) where TNC negotiated the largest debt restructuring of Belize for marine conservation that the world has ever seen. In this effort, TNC proposed economic pathways and conservation efforts for reducing Belize’s national debt by $360 million where Belize agreed to the concept of “Belize Blue Bonds,” and restructured its $553 million of debt that will result in $180 million in cash flow for marine conservation over the next 20 years. In addition, Belize committed to protect 30% of its oceans by improving the management of its coastal and marine resources through a marine spatial plan and strengthening environmental protection laws for climate mitigation. As part of this agreement, Belize plans to plant 200 hectares of mangroves in the Turneffe region generating 106,000 tons of carbon offsets over 20 years by working with local landowners to develop sustainable tourism plans for the communities that depend on them. This coastal resilience project will generate revenue from the sale of carbon credits to support ongoing conservation and management of this habitat. This the best example of partnership and implementation of new policies for the reforestation of mangrove forests in Belize.

The second example is from Bahrain where the country has decided to expand green spaces and double the mangrove trees to mitigate climate change and achieve Bahrain’s goal of reaching net zero by 2060. At COP 26 meeting in Egypt, Bahrain made a commitment to the goals of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change where Bahrain will take several initiatives including doubling the area under mangroves to reach 3.6 million trees by 2035. This is best policy decision Bahrain has made for the expansion of mangrove cultivation to generate carbon offsets.

Limited number of studies are available where set of policies are suggested to governments for reforestation and minimizing the risk for degradation of existing mangrove forests. Osman and Elbashier ( 2019 ) proposed following policies for the rehabilitation of mangrove forests in the Middle East and to minimize their degradation:

Declare mangrove forests as protectorate areas

Developing plans for managing mangrove sites

Creating regulations for ensuring the protection of mangrove trees

Encourage governments and private sectors to plant more mangrove trees and get involved in the rehabilitation initiatives

Establish research centers in each country to study the science of mangroves and their growth parameters

Creating national and local committees for mangroves management

Increase awareness in local communities using educational tools on the benefits of mangrove to the society

Control the excessive cutting and animal grazing on mangrove trees through regulations.

Suggested innovative policies and the framework for mangrove conservation and reforestation

All countries with existing mangrove stands need to modify their current policies on marine planning and ocean management, and develop new policies that are sound, affordable, sustainable, and forward looking to the conservation and restoration of existing mangrove and promotion of reforestation of degraded mangrove sites adjacent to coastal ecosystems such as coral reefs, seagrass meadows, and seaweeds. One of most promising pathways is to implement Environmental Impact Assessment policies in consultation and engagement with stakeholders, especially coastal communities to protect mangroves and other coastal wetlands. Following are the key recommendations on policy framework:

Develop new policies using carrot and stick approach for mangroves conservation and Preservation : The first step before developing any new policy should be to start a dialogue with stakeholders. Policy makers need to reach out to all stakeholders and organize listening to sessions with local coastal communities to highlight the value of mangroves for the society, and its impact on environment. Educate them about blue carbon economy and increased carbon sequestration when mangroves are protected or restored. Also, discussion needs to be made on what happens if mangroves are degraded or destroyed by the local communities through animal grazing and/or wood cutting. If mangroves are destroyed permanently, these ecosystems will emit the carbon back to the atmosphere that they have stored for centuries in mangrove trees and into oceans and these degraded sites will become sources of greenhouse gases. Experts estimate that as much as 1.02 billion tons of carbon dioxide are being released annually from degraded coastal ecosystems, which is equivalent to 19% of emissions from tropical deforestation globally (Lee et al. 2019 ). Mangroves, tidal marshes, and seagrasses are critical in protecting coastal water quality, healthy fisheries, and coastal protection against floods and storms. For example, mangroves are estimated to be worth at least US$1.6 billion each year in ecosystem services in the world to support coastal livelihoods (Lee et al. 2019 ).

A good policy would be to declare all mangrove sites as nationally protected sites with significant benefits to local coastal communities responsible for maintaining, preservation and conservation of mangroves as an incentive (carrot approach). Studies have shown that the economic value of mangrove forests to the ecosystems is about US$91,000 which is more than other marine ecosystems such as coral reef, seaweeds, seagrass etc. (Kathiresan 2021 ). Policies can provide benefits to local communities in the form of free education to children, nutritious lunch in schools to children, incentives to start local industries with low interest rate loans like poultry, dairy, fish, and food processing enterprises which will help local livelihood. Also, part of the policy should be to put a complete ban on animal grazing and wood cutting for mangrove conservation. Heavy fines to those who will violate these policies (stick approach) and some incentives who those who become local guardians on maintaining and safeguard of mangrove forests (carrot approach).

Second, new policies should be developed for small and large business houses building resorts, hotels, shopping centers and other infrastructures like manufacturing/building material plants in coastal area. These business houses must meet the strict environmental standards for environmental degradation such as soil, water and air pollution and must pay for carbon credits generated in response to GHG emissions so that these enterprises are carbon neutral. The income from these carbon credits must be put in an escrow fund and used only for mangrove preservation, maintenance, and reforestation purposes. This will encourage local communities to start nurseries for growing mangrove seedling and brining more area under reforestation of mangroves.

Third, a good public transport system in the country could use Singapore model where there is environmental tax on buying cars to minimize GHG emissions. This environmental tax is collected as additional registration fee (ARF). Under this policy, cars with value under $20,000 are charged ARF of 100% at the time of purchase, cars that value in the range of $20,001 and $50,000 will be taxed ARF 140% of the car value, and for cars with a value above $50,000, will be taxed ARF of 180% of value. This policy discourages people to buy cars and encourages them to either use public transport system or bicycles as a means of transport. This policy in Singapore was developed to control carbon emissions from the use of automobiles. Also, under the policy where cars emit low carbon emissions of less than or equal to 160 g/km, the car owners are entitled to a rebate that ranges from $5,000 to $20,000. On the other hand, car owners will be penalized with a surcharge that ranges from $5,000 to $20,000 if their vehicle emits carbon more than or equal to 211 g/km.

Other policies could use Sweden model where there is very high parking fee if employees park their cars in parking lots near their offices unto $10 an hour. This is to discourage employees/workers to drive cars, but cities provide free parking spaces for the bicycles. Again, it is a carrot and stick system approach in policy development.

Enhance the role of collaborative research on mangrove ecosystem and biodiversity enrichment: collaborative research offers a comprehensive understanding of mangrove ecosystems, biodiversity, and the factors affecting their resilience and health. While the obtained knowledge is necessary for making educated decisions and implementing conservation measures that protects mangrove habitats, collaborative research enriches biodiversity in various ways:

Assessing ecological processes and interactions scientists study the complex ecological processes in mangrove ecosystems and examine seed dispersal, pollination, nutrient cycling, and predator–prey relationships. Key ecological linkages and their significance in preserving biodiversity can be identified by understanding these processes and the interactions between species

Understanding species composition and distribution research efforts facilitate the identification and documentation of wide variety of plant and animal species present in mangrove environments. Researchers can gain a better understanding of the distribution patterns, abundance, and ecological requirements of different species by conducting surveys and assessments and effective conservation and management techniques require this knowledge

Engaging local communities and stakeholders engaging with stakeholders, indigenous groups, and local communities is a common aspect of collaborative research. Through the integration of traditional ecological knowledge into scientific study, this participatory approach facilitates information sharing and community involvement in conservation initiatives. Research will match the needs of people depending on mangrove ecosystems by involving the local communities which will lead to enhanced biodiversity protection

Restoration and conservation practices techniques for mangrove conservation and restoration are developed and improved through collaborative research. Through examining the efficacy and success of various restoration techniques, scientists can improve strategies that support the restoration of ecosystem functions and biodiversity. It also helps in directing adaptive management techniques and assessing the long-term results of restoration programs.

Investigating threats and conservation challenges this research addresses the threats faced by mangroves like climate change impacts, human activities, pollution, and habitat degradation. Researchers can assess the effects of threats on biodiversity by studying them then develop strategies to mitigate them. The identification of priority locations for conservation and restoration initiatives is another benefit of this research.

Carry out vulnerability assessments on the existing mangroves: in order to comprehend the effects of vulnerability assessment and its application on mangroves, as well as to develop a framework for adapting to climate change, this evaluation employs a variety of measurement techniques.

The first measuring technique includes three dimensions: sensitivity, exposure, and adaptive capacity. Sensitivity indicates how much exposure has affected the mangroves, exposure refers to the external factors that stress the mangroves like decreased freshwater and higher carbon dioxide concentrations, while adaptive capacity is defined as a system's capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change and is indicated by a number of factors as information and technology (Ellison 2015 ).

The second measuring technique is using mangrove vulnerability index thorough framework for examining how the social and environmental context responds to change; Three variables are evaluated: hazard mangrove index (HMI), biological mangrove index (BMI), and Physical Mangrove Index (PMI) (Yunus et al. 2018 ). These variables combine to form the mangrove vulnerability index (MVI). Each index includes parameters that should be tested to assess the mangroves vulnerability under this certain scope. Parameters to be tested for HMI include wave and wind, sea level change (Gilman et al. 2008 ), precipitation (Arnous et al. 2011 ), and human activity (Goldberg et al. 2020 ) while BMI includes tidal ranges (Ellison 2015 ), soil and geomorphology and elevation ranking (Krauss et al 2010 ), distance to coastline (Mafi-Gholami et al. 2020 ), salinity, canopy density and normalized dense vegetation index while PMI includes mangroves height and species.

Therefore, vulnerability assessment, through the tested parameters under each index, yields outcomes that help us assess what parameters to focus on exactly hence we can shape the policies based on the modifications/parameters tested.

Finally, governments must take the responsibility to protect, sustain, conserve and augment mangrove forests through promotional as well as regulatory measures. The promotional measures should develop and regulate policies at the federal government in collaboration with local governments and local communities for ‘Conservation and Management of Mangroves in coastal areas as a matter of national pride and commitment to minimize GHG emissions as a global responsibility and protect people from risks of climate change.

Summary and conclusion

Mangrove forests are one of the best NBS that sequester excess CO 2 from the atmosphere at a rate four to five times greater than normal forests. Their benefits are numerous including: coastal flood reduction, coastlines stabilization, water quality enhancement, providing nesting areas to migratory birds and nurseries to wildlife, providing abundance of local seafood, improving local economies, and helping countries meet their commitment/targets to net zero carbon emissions. This paper has shown that factors affecting mangroves growth are: temperature, coastal water salinity, sediment yield and supply, coastal typology, groundwater, wave action, tidal currents, tidal range, DO, and other water characteristics. Fish production and carbon sequestration are among the best environmental and food security benefits of Mangroves. Currently, mangroves occupy 15.2 million hectares globally contrary to occupying 18.1 million hectares in 1980. This indicates that destruction of mangrove forest has continued during the period of industrial revolution and still going on. Worldwide, mangroves can be found in Africa, South America, Asia, Western Atlantic Ocean, Caribbean Sea, and Australia. They can be found in the Middle East in: Oman, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Qatar, Iran, Egypt, Sudan, and Yemen. There are only two abundant species of mangroves in the region: Avicennia marina and Rhizophora mucronata , as they are the only species that can tolerate the region’s extremely harsh, dry, and hot environmental conditions. Detailed locations of mangroves in each of the nine countries are mentioned.

The key findings of this review article are:

Only selected species of mangroves flourish in the hot climates of the Middle East due to lack of fresh water from rains compared to more than 80 species that have been found in the tropical countries like Indonesia.

Saudi Arabia has the largest mangrove cover of 20,400 ha while Bahrain has the smallest area of 80 ha. The smallest mangrove height can be found in Bahrain (1 m long) while the tallest can be found in UAE (10 m long). The average height in the region varies from 4 to 6 m.

Mangroves in the region are dwarves due to high sea surface temperatures exceeding 31 °C in summers, low precipitation, high salinities over 40 ppt, and minimal riverine nutrient inputs which results in 2–4 m average trees in height

Mangroves growth in Oman and Bahrain is affected by intertidal areas with gentle slow slope and access to low salinity water that is discharged from underground springs and close farms, respectively.

Mangrove trees in Saudi Arabia, Qatar, and Egypt are impacted by presence of high nutrients in water with small tidal amplitudes and lagoons presence, receiving fine sediments and high organic matter content, and geomorphological aspects of the lagoons and bays of the Red Sea, respectively.

Mangroves tolerate the Middle East harsh environmental conditions through: (1) adaptation to high temperature, (2) adaptation to elevated salt content by filtering about 90% of the seawater salt, (3) successful reproduction and offspring survival, and (4) anoxic soil and waterlogging.

Various factors threaten mangroves survival including: hydrology alterations, groundwater input reductions, extreme drought, high nutrient loading, and fluctuations in seawater level.

Oil pollution and mangrove leave’s overexploitation through camel grazing are the two main reason for mangrove degradation in the Persian Gulf.

To overcome the impacts of threats facing mangroves, several rehabilitation initiatives have been taken in the Middle East: (1) Oman announced a national initiative to plant 10 million trees and has succeeded in planting 1.5 million mangrove seeds in Khor Ghawi in Wilayat Al Jazir and Al Wusta's Wilayat Mahout Wetland Reserve as a start, (2) Bahrain has decided to quadruple its mangrove cover to reach 3.6 million trees by 2035, (3) Saudi Arabia has planted 2 million trees with Aramco in 2020 then planted more than 4.3 million mangrove trees in sites along the coasts of the Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea where the kingdom’s goal is to plant more than 100 million mangrove trees in the coming years as part of Saudi Vision 2030, (4) UAE aims at expanding its mangrove forests from 30 to 100 million trees by 2030 and they are achieving it through organizing many activities that involve community participation in mangrove seedlings plantation and then giving the access of a cruise to move around the mangroves for proper management of mangrove forests, (5) in addition to introducing new plantation methods using drones one million mangrove seeds were planted in the Al Dhafra region, Qatar aims at planting 1 million mangrove trees by 2022 and 10 million trees by 2030 while Iran is planting mangrove seedlings on 86 hectares of coastal land as part of its expanding agenda across the coastal city.

Finally, Egypt has developed policies and goals for reforestation of mangroves in the country and started planting R. mucronata seedlings in coordination with the FAO in 2007. Then, the ITTO and ASRT continued mangrove plantation in 2010 and 2017 respectively. Some of the research institutions, like CARES at the American University in Cairo, have initiated research projects to promote the plantation of mangroves in partnership with local communities in Marsa Alam.

On the basis of research conducted in this paper, they key recommendations are:

The Middle East countries’ governments are advised to invest more in mangroves reforestation and relevant tourism activities. More money should be added into the science research fund to study the factors impacting the growth or degradation of mangroves in the region, support more rehabilitation actions, and take inspiration from the showcased rehabilitation initiatives.

Countries need to develop policies and future strategies for zero carbon emissions using the carbon offset credits from mangrove plantations just like Bahrain has set a goal of zero emissions by 1960. Also, Egypt needs to expand its connectivity with global leaders of Carbon Credits as Belize has taken advantage of their initiatives on mangroves to get concessions from international banks/donor to reduce their national debt by almost $360 million.

Investments in mangrove conservation and restoration efforts in the region will give the highest return on investment in mitigating climate change and help in thriving the economy of surrounding coastal communities. The success of NBS will not be sustainable unless the surrounding local communities are involved, and their livelihoods are positively impacted from implementing mangrove-based projects with incentive policies.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.

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Acknowledgements

The American University in Cairo’s Center for Applied Research on Environment and S, School of Science and Engineering acknowledge the support received from HSBC/ Climate Solutions (CSP) Partnership for funding the project “Developing Participatory Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration Model as a Nature-Based Solution to Climate Change (MERS)”.

Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. The work was funded through the project “Developing Participatory Mangrove Ecosystem Restoration Model as a Nature-Based Solution to Climate Change (MERS)”.

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All authors contributed to the study conception and design, data collection and analysis. The first manuscript draft was written by Toqa Allah Waleed and all authors reviewed and commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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Waleed, T.A., Abdel-Maksoud, Y.K., Kanwar, R.S. et al. Mangroves in Egypt and the Middle East: current status, threats, and opportunities. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-024-05788-1

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