sex tourism definition

Open access
Published: 27 November 2020

Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature

Timothy Siliang Lu 1 ,
Andrea Holmes 1 , 2 ,
Chris Noone 3 &
Gerard Thomas Flaherty ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5987-1658 1 , 4

Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines volume 6 , Article number: 24 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Sex tourism is defined as travel planned specifically for the purpose of sex, generally to a country where prostitution is legal. While much of the literature on sex tourism relates to the commercial sex worker industry, sex tourism also finds expression in non-transactional sexual encounters. This narrative review explores current concepts related to travel and sex, with a focus on trans-national sex tourism.

The PubMed database was accessed to source relevant literature, using combinations of pertinent search terms. Only articles published in the English language were selected. Reference lists of published articles were also examined for relevant articles.

With regard to preferred destinations, South/Central America and the Caribbean were more likely to receive tourists looking for casual sex. Longer duration of travel, travelling alone or with friends, alcohol or drug use, being younger and being single were factors associated with higher levels of casual sex overseas. The majority of literature retrieved on sex workers focused on risk behaviours, sexually transmitted infections (STI), mobility of sex workers and how these factors affected their lives. Sex tourists require better access to effective methods of preventing HIV, such as pre-exposure prophylaxis, and better education on HIV prevention. Drugs and alcohol play a major role as risk factors for and cofactors in casual sexual behaviour while abroad.

Conclusions

Travellers need to be informed of the increased risks of STI before travel. They should be aware of the local prevalence of STIs and the risks associated with their sexual practices when they travel, including engaging with commercial sex workers, having unprotected sexual intercourse and becoming victims of sexual violence.

Prior to the current pandemic of COVID-19, international travel had reached record levels of activity, with 1.4 billion traveller arrivals recorded in 2018 [ 1 ]. Sex and travel have a long association, dating from the ancient world onwards [ 2 ], and their connection is still apparent today. Sex tourism is defined by the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) as “travel planned specifically for the purpose of sex, generally to a country where prostitution is legal” [ 3 ]. Domestic sex tourism implies travel within the same country, while trans-national sex tourism refers to travel across international boundaries.

While much of the literature on sex tourism relates to the commercial sex worker industry, which remains illegal in many jurisdictions, sex tourism also finds expression in non-transactional sexual encounters, typically involving a tourist from an economically developed country seeking sexual experiences in developing host destinations. In some cases, travellers may engage in sex tourism to validate their own sexual identity with greater freedom than would be allowed in their own, more conservative nations. The main source of opposition to sex tourism concerns the troubling phenomenon of child sex tourism, which will be explored later in this review.

The link between travelling and the spread of disease is undeniable, as demonstrated by the current COVID-19 pandemic. As the travel landscape changes in the aftermath of the pandemic, so will the behaviour of travellers. The subject of sex tourism has been neglected to date in the travel medicine literature and receives little attention in the pre-travel health consultation. This narrative review explores current concepts related to travel and sex, with a focus on trans-national sex tourism, while also giving an insight into specific risks and behaviours associated with this activity.

Literature search strategy

The PubMed database was accessed between June 2019 and June 2020 to source relevant literature using combinations of the following search terms: Sex, Tourism, Travel, Migration, Holiday, Abroad, Vacation, Sexually Transmitted Infection, Sexually Transmitted Disease, Human Immunodeficiency Virus, Prostitution, Drugs, Alcohol, Trafficking, Rape, Child, Military, Navy, Defence Forces, Business, Homosexual, Heterosexual, LGBTQ+, Transgender, Asia, North America, South America, Europe, Oceania, Africa. Only articles published in the English language were selected. Articles published within the past 5 years were prioritised. Reference lists of published articles were examined to ensure all relevant articles were included. Relevant sources of grey literature were also retrieved using Google® as a search engine. The legality of prostitution in different international jurisdictions, governmental attempts to regulate the sex tourism industry and the extraterritorial criminalisation of child sex tourism were beyond the scope of the current review.

Epidemiology of sex and travel

In the context of this review, we define casual sex as sexual relations undertaken without serious intent or emotional commitment between individuals who are not established sexual partners or do not know each other well. Men were more likely to seek out or engage in casual or risky sex behaviours (e.g., multiple partners, unprotected intercourse) while travelling [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. As many as 1 in 10 men were recorded as having an overseas partner in a British study [ 6 ], and different categories of male sex tourist have also been proposed in the literature [ 7 ], ranging from the ‘macho lad’ asserting his dominance over foreign women to the ‘white knight’ saving women from commercial sex work. A study from the United States showed that female travellers had a greater preference for travel to European or tropical countries, and that sex was more likely to occur on group tours, sightseeing or backpacking holidays lasting fewer than 14 days [ 8 ]. Female sex tourism has also been described in Caribbean destinations such as Jamaica, with Euro-American women purchasing the services of so-called “Rent-A-Dreads”, local men who seek out relationships with tourist women for economic gain [ 9 ]. Younger women were reported to prefer expatriates and other tourists as sexual partners [ 10 ], while men of all ages and older women were reported to exercise a preference for local partners.

With regards to preferred destinations, a meta-analysis conducted in 2018 showed that South/Central America and the Caribbean were more likely to receive tourists looking for casual sex [ 5 ]. Additionally, Thailand and Cuba also have a prevalent sex tourism industry [ 7 , 11 ]. One study found that 66% of Australian tourists to Thailand were planning on having a sexual encounter while there [ 11 ], while sex tourism in Cuba has been described as “integral to the Cuban experience” [ 12 ]. Traveller subtypes who were more likely to engage in sex included backpackers, travelling businessmen, those visiting friends and relatives (VFR), and those travelling specifically to solicit commercial sex workers [ 5 ]. Factors associated with popular sex tourism destinations are described in Table 1 .

Several studies report that longer duration of travel (greater than 1 month), travelling alone or with friends, alcohol or drug use, being younger and being single were factors associated with higher levels of casual sex overseas [ 4 , 5 , 6 ]. A study conducted in Sweden reported conflicting data, showing that short term travellers (less than 5 days) were 20 times more likely to engage in casual sex [ 16 ]. While few studies offered information linking different ethnicities to sexual behaviour overseas, one British study found that non-white citizens were more likely to engage in sexual behaviour while travelling [ 6 ]. Migrants and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) community are also discussed frequently in the sex tourism literature. A summary of the characteristics associated with sexual risk behaviour is shown in Table 2 . This will be explored further in this review. Studies of travellers engaging in sex with tourism representatives [ 11 ], sex workers and fellow travellers [ 5 ] show that choice of partner while travelling is not limited to any particular demographic.

Commercial sex work and travel

Travellers may engage in planned or opportunistic interactions with commercial sex workers (CSW). The majority of literature we retrieved on sex workers focused on risk behaviours, sexually transmitted infections (STI), mobility of sex workers and how these factors affected their lives. De et al. examined the different categories of sex worker in the region of Bangui in the Central African Republic, and found that 1 in 4 of ‘Pupulenge’, the higher class sex worker more likely to cater to foreigners, had poor regular usage of condoms in the previous 3 months, but better knowledge of their HIV/AIDS risk and status [ 24 ]. There were similar findings among male sex workers in Jamaica, who regarded themselves more as long term romantic partners of female tourists, and as such had low levels of condom usage [ 13 ]. In addition, these men had reported misuse of alcohol and drugs, and were accustomed to having multiple partners.

Safe sex behaviours were also shown to be highly dependent on the travel destination. A study in Singapore showed that 87.5% of local men used condoms when engaging a sex worker in Singapore, but when travelling the rate dropped to between 44 and 77%, depending on location [ 25 ]. This finding was supported by research from Hong Kong, which also showed that heterosexual men reported lower levels of condom usage when visiting sex workers outside of their own country [ 26 ]. Hsieh et al. [ 27 ] proposed that the clients of sex workers could facilitate the spread of STIs between different nations and networks to a larger degree than sex workers, while also contributing to STI prevalence within their own communities.

An interesting area with limited research evidence is the role sex tourism websites play, with only one paper identified on this subject [ 28 ]. This article analysed various sex tourism websites and found that most displayed sex workers as commodities, to be chosen and paid for by tourists, portraying them as exotic third world women, capable of providing a “total girlfriend experience”, enjoying the company of foreigners and being completely subservient to them. This study proposed that these websites enforce the fiction behind sex tourism and, in doing so, sustain the possible misogynistic views of the sex tourist. It was also noted that any legal or health information on these websites was centred round the tourist, rather than the sex worker.

The risks faced by non-commercial partners of sex workers have also been studied. An examination of CSW in a Mexican border town with high migratory traffic found that unprotected sex was often common in their personal relationships, too [ 29 ]. The literature relating to CSW and travel showed that multiple parties are implicated in commercial sex networks, and the behaviour of any one individual in these networks has implications for many others. Table 3 below summarises these findings.

Sexually transmitted infections

The association of sex tourism and casual sex during travel with the spread of novel STIs has long been recognised. It has been suggested that Columbus’ sailors were responsible for the epidemic of venereal syphilis in Europe in the late fifteenth century following sexual relations with local Haitian women [ 2 ], while the link between travel and the spread of novel STIs was also established in Thailand in the 1980s [ 30 ], and Trinidad and Tobago in 2012 [ 31 ]. Travellers are also thought to be implicated in the reintroduction of syphilis and lymphogranuloma venereum to parts of North America and Europe [ 25 ]. The risk factors for traveller acquisition of STIs include longer duration of stay, travel to lower income countries, being single, substance abuse, being male, repeat visits to the same area, and a previous history of multiple partners or STIs [ 32 , 33 ]. Crawford et al. identified being female, having a history of fewer sexual partners, and having received pre-travel health advice and vaccinations as being associated with a lower risk of contracting STIs among expatriates and travellers [ 32 ].

While prevalence rates for STIs among CSW vary, rates as high as 88% in Nairobi and 44% in Bangkok have been reported [ 34 ]. In addition to this, high rates of curable STI prevail worldwide, ranging from 5 to 65% in Africa, 20.9% in Brazil and 0–13.6% in Asia [ 10 ]. These findings put sex tourists at very high risk for STIs on a global scale. A diverse range of STIs has been recorded in travellers returning from tropical countries [ 35 ], from frequent detection of genital herpes in sailors returning to China [ 36 ], to the suggested “new” STI Tinea genitalis , found in several individuals with a recent travel sex history in Southeast Asia [ 37 ]. While this type of dermatophyte infection is not primarily an STI, the sudden rise in cases associated with it over a short period highlights how vulnerable travellers are to organisms transferable through intimate contact during travel.

A study examining all cases of gonorrhoea contracted by people living in Nordic nations between 2008 and 2013 showed that 25.5% of all cases were associated with travel [ 14 ]. The rates of travel-associated gonorrhoea increased from year to year and, while the majority of cases involved men, the number of affected women increased from year to year. Among the regions visited, the majority of Nordic travel-associated cases of gonorrhoea were associated with travel to Asia (between December and July) and Europe (from August to November), a third of cases were associated with travel to Thailand, and travel to Thailand, Philippines and Spain accounted for almost half of all travel-related cases. These data imply that specific regions can be considered hotspots for contraction of STIs during travel.

Another important consideration is the acquisition and spread of antimicrobial resistant (AMR) STIs. In recent years, the rise in AMR involving Haemophilus ducreyi has been documented worldwide [ 10 ]. Similarly, beta-lactamase producing strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae have been detected in Africa, the Caribbean and Asia. In isolates of N. gonorrhoeae from Africa and Southeast Asia, penicillin resistance has been reported in as many as 50% of isolates. Baker et al. also noted the worldwide spread of azithromycin-resistant shigellosis through sexual transmission, from high prevalence regions in Africa and Asia, to lower prevalence nations [ 38 ]. The documented increase in AMR STIs puts travellers engaging in sexual behaviour at high risk of treatment-resistant infection.

Current efforts to advise and change traveller behaviours have been shown to be of limited effectiveness. A study of different efforts to curtail travellers’ risk behaviour showed that providing brief interventions on sexual health during consults for travellers proved minimally more effective than just distributing condoms or not providing additional advice [ 39 ]. This trial showed that the methods employed still resulted in low levels of condom usage. In a study by Croughs et al., extensive motivational training was shown to reduce sexual risk behaviour, and it was also found that written materials on STIs were more effective than having travel health practitioners discuss STI prevention with travellers [ 40 ]. A change in strategy appears necessary to combat the risk-taking behaviours of travellers, especially given the reported difficulty of reaching target audiences [ 41 ].

This is an important area that warrants further research, given poor recorded levels of condom usage in travellers. A meta-analysis of literature on this subject found that the pooled prevalence of unprotected intercourse among travellers who had sex overseas was 49.4% [ 42 ]. Similar results have been shown among sexually active backpackers visiting Ko Tao and Ko Phangan in Thailand, with a third of subjects reporting inconsistent condom use. An online cross-sectional study of travellers was conducted in 2014 [ 15 ], and among the sexually active population 59.7% reported inconsistent condom use. A study of condom usage among Swedish travellers revealed flawed reasoning for decisions around condom usage, such as length of familiarity with partner, the country visited, and asking if their partner had an STI [ 43 ]. This same study also revealed that some travellers succumbed to peer pressure, were more willing to let their partner make the decision, and had a fear of being seen as promiscuous (among heterosexual women) or a fear of ‘ruining the moment’ (among heterosexual men), leading to reduced condom usage. Other factors associated with reduced usage were the belief that foreign condoms were of poorer quality [ 34 ], spontaneous sexual encounters or embarrassment at purchasing condoms [ 43 ], substance use [ 15 , 32 , 43 ], and travel to Latin America or the Caribbean [ 15 ]. An examination of male sex tourists to Thailand also revealed that unprotected sex was seen as more masculine and enjoyable, and there was a general misconception among male sex tourists that unprotected heterosexual intercourse was a low risk activity [ 44 ]. This same study also showed that male heterosexual sex tourists were aware of risks, but due to their own personal or peer experiences being at variance with the warnings they received regarding risky sexual behaviour, they were more likely to engage in unprotected sex with CSW. The low rates of condom usage put sexually active travellers at an obvious risk for contraction of STIs.

It is accepted that contracting an STI increases the risk of HIV transmission, and vice versa [ 45 ]. A Geosentinel analysis from 2013 indicated that, out of a sample of 64,335 travellers, 117 returned home with acute symptoms of HIV transmission [ 46 ]. In addition, links between clusters of HIV acquisition in Belize, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras have been found. This finding highlighted the role migration and travel play in the transmission of HIV within Central America. This study also found half of Honduran woman sampled with HIV belonged to viral clusters that were linked to international clusters. Memish and Osoba also noted in their paper on STIs and travel that travellers to Sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia and India were most likely to acquire HIV from unprotected sexual encounters [ 2 ]. The voluminous literature relating to STIs and travel indicates that this is an area of key importance to the travel medicine practitioner. While the effectiveness to date of interventions in altering risk behaviours in travellers has been questionable, it is clear that travellers require better access to effective methods of preventing HIV, such as pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), and better education on HIV prevention.

The LGBTQ+ community and travel sex behaviour

A meta-analysis published in 2018 revealed that gay, bisexual and other men who have sex with men (MSM) travellers were 3 times more likely to have casual sex while travelling [ 5 ]. Travel or migration may allow members of the LGBTQ+ community to escape from societal pressures they face in their home countries and explore their sexuality [ 17 ]. MSM are also more likely than heterosexual men to have multiple partners during their travels. MSM have also shown to be at least twice as likely to pay for sex compared to heterosexual men [ 10 ]. A report on MSM travellers in the United States also found that 19.4% of those surveyed reported that having sex with a new partner was one of their main goals while on vacation [ 18 ]. Further studies in the US on MSM travellers to Key West, a popular destination for LGBTQ+ travellers in Florida, found that of the sexually active participants, 34% had new partners, and 59% had unprotected anal intercourse (UAI) [ 19 ]. Among Swedish MSM travellers, 13.5% reported UAI during their overseas travels, the majority of whom met a new partner abroad [ 20 ]. Additional studies in China involving MSM found that 5% identified as sex tourists, a third of this group identified the purchase of sex as a primary reason for travel, and another third had UAI while travelling [ 21 ].

While limited research exists on other categories of travellers within the LGBTQ+ community, one paper on transgender women in Bangladesh revealed that those who crossed international borders had a greater number of transactional sex partners and reduced use of condoms [ 22 ]. Across all of these studies, regular associations between travel and drug and alcohol use, transactional sex, group sex, a history of STIs and a greater number of past partners were reported [ 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 , 23 ].

Another interesting area of development in LGBTQ+ international travel trends is the resurgence of circuit parties [ 47 ]. These parties involve weekend-long social activities and dance events. Party-goers were found more likely to have a greater number of partners in the previous 6 months, greater use of recreational drugs, more likely to seek transactional sex, and more likely to report a personal history of STI and UAI. A common finding with these parties was attendees travelling from low HIV prevalence countries to high prevalence countries. This finding was replicated among Chinese MSM travellers [ 21 ]. These social events are commonly associated with the use of drugs which heighten sexual arousal, an activity referred to as ‘chemsex’.

Networks of MSM travellers have also been described around the world. A group of MSM referred to as “Geoflexibles” was identified by Gesink et al. in 2018 [ 48 ]. The authors described a group of men who were willing to travel for sex, and who were less particular about where they had sex. Gesink proposed that these travellers could act as a bridge between MSM in Toronto and, although his study did not specifically mention international travel, it is certainly applicable in the travel context. Networks of MSM implicated in the transmission of STIs and HIV have been suggested in the literature. Persson et al. suggested the presence of a network in Sweden with a high prevalence of STI/HIV [ 20 ], and an examination of HIV clusters in Central America found that half of the people living with HIV were MSM, with serotypes closely related to international clusters [ 49 ]. The suggestion of international MSM networks and travel playing a role in the dispersion of STI/HIV was reinforced by Takebe et al. in 2014 [ 50 ]. Their research revealed the worldwide dispersal of the JP.MSM.B1 subtype of HIV, and confirmed the interactions of HIV epidemics between Japan, China and the rest of the world. These networks have also been implicated in Shigella transmission in San Francisco [ 51 ], in addition to an outbreak of Hepatitis A in Northern Italy [ 52 ].

These findings have implications for LGBTQ+ travellers who engage in sexual behaviour while abroad. Mathematical modelling of LGBTQ+ tourists to Key West estimated that 1 in 196.5 MSM who engage in risk behaviour will acquire HIV [ 19 ], roughly equating to 200 new infections per 100,000 tourists, a number which could drop to as low as 45 with consistent condom use. In 77% of sexual interactions in this study, HIV serostatus was not discussed. Studies about MSM travellers in San Francisco showed that, among those who engaged in casual sex, there was a decreased probability of HIV serodisclosure when communication was an issue owing to language barriers [ 53 ]. A follow up study was conducted on the health-seeking behaviour of MSM travellers, revealing that a quarter of those surveyed had not received the Hepatitis B virus vaccine, and of the men living with HIV, a third had not been vaccinated [ 54 ].

Another facet of the intersection between sex tourism and HIV transmission that warrants attention is the relatively new phenomenon of “holiday pre-exposure prophylaxis” (PrEP) for HIV. With PrEP being a relatively new phenomenon, limited literature exists on the subject in relation to travel, but interviews conducted by Underhill et al. suggest that MSM travellers regard themselves as at greater risk for HIV while travelling and are more willing to take PrEP [ 55 ]. However, travel has also been associated with disruption in PrEP regimens due to inconvenience [ 56 , 57 ], so the role it plays in sex tourism warrants further research.

Travel for the purposes of sexual exploration and casual sex among MSM presents a challenge to travel medicine practitioners. Analysis of Swedish MSM travellers in 2015 revealed that there was little HIV or STI prevention information received in Sweden or abroad [ 58 ]. In addition, only 3% of the surveyed population sought out this information before travelling. A further investigation of the knowledge, attitudes and practices of MSM travellers is required to plan successful interventions in this population of international travellers. More research on how sex tourism is experienced by women and gender diverse people within the LGBTQ+ community is also warranted.

The effects of alcohol and drugs on sex tourism

Drugs and alcohol play a major role as risk factors for and cofactors in casual sexual behaviour while abroad. A study of British summer workers in Ibiza found that almost all those surveyed drank alcohol, while 85.3% used drugs during their stay, a high proportion of whom used drugs that they had never tried before [ 59 ]. This study found that the odds of having sex increased with the use of amphetamines or higher frequency of drinking, while the odds of having multiple partners increased with greater frequency of drinking. Unprotected sex was also found to be more likely when alcohol was involved.

Extensive analysis of American students on Spring Break has also been conducted to analyse the role alcohol plays in high risk behaviour during this period. Patrick et al. found that a greater proportion of students drank alcohol before having sex or making risky sexual decisions [ 60 ]. This finding was particularly prevalent among students who travelled abroad. Another study of Spring Break students found that risky behaviours such as unprotected sex or multiple partners were cumulative [ 61 ], such that engaging in one activity increased risk for the other. Almost half of the students in this study reported binge drinking before sex. The role alcohol and drugs play in exposing travellers to risky sexual behaviour is clear, but this appears to be poorly appreciated by the traveller. Travel health practitioners must emphasise the risks travellers expose themselves to when misusing alcohol and drugs.

Sexual assault and violence in travellers

A cross-sectional survey on travellers returning from Mediterranean resorts reported that 1.5% were subject to non-consensual sex during their travels, with gay and bisexual males reporting higher levels [ 62 ]. In this same report, 8.6% of respondents experienced some form of sexual harassment, with females and gay/bisexual males more frequently reporting this. Another finding was that being a gay/bisexual male, using marijuana, and patronising bars where there were opportunities for sex were factors associated with being subject to non-consensual sex. A similar study on the harassment of tourists in Barbados found between 7 and 12% of tourists reported sexual harassment, depending on their country of origin [ 63 ]. Kennedy and Flaherty also asserted that up to 4% of Irish citizens reporting sexual violence experience it while travelling [ 64 ]. A review from Canada of all reported sexual assault cases associated with mass gathering events found a significant association between being overseas and being sexually assaulted at such an event [ 65 ]. Table 4 outlines the pre-travel health advice which should be available to travellers who may engage in sex tourism.

Child sex tourism

Klain described two main types of child sex tourist, the “elective sex tourist” who travels for leisure or business and makes unplanned use of child sex workers when given the opportunity, and the “core sex tourist”, the purpose of whose trip is solely to engage in sexual contact with a child [ 66 ]. A study of German tourists conducted in 2017 found that 0.4% reported being child sex tourists [ 67 ]. This same study found that these individuals usually had personal experiences of abuse, paedophilic and antisocial behaviours. With an estimated 1.2 million children trafficked worldwide annually [ 67 ], more research is urgently needed on this topic.

The effects of wealth and mobility on sex tourism

Aggleton et al. describe in their paper a specific group of travellers, “mobile men with money” [ 68 ]. These men come from diverse backgrounds and various employments, but share two common features, high spending power and high mobility. In the paper, these men were said to frequently use their high spending power and resources to engage in casual and transactional sex encounters. This group of men was found to be at high risk for HIV. The paper proposed that these men lacked social support and were frequently influenced by the behaviour of their peers. While further literature on this sub-group is lacking, travel to lower income countries and the resulting increase in spending power for the traveller have been documented as risk factors for acquisition of STI/HIV [ 32 ]. This would suggest that wealth inequality may have a role in influencing risk behaviours in certain individuals.

Impact of sex tourism on host communities

While a detailed consideration of the impact of sex tourists on sex tourism destinations is beyond the scope of the current work, some key issues are worthy of discussion. Local cultural attitudes towards sex tourism are complex and are influenced by harsh economic conditions, where impoverished families may find themselves with few options for survival and have to resort to sending their children to urban centres visited by sex tourists. There may be an expectation in some cultures that children will share the family’s financial burden. Remittances from a family member engaged in the sex tourism industry may be vital to enable families to improve their quality of life.

Child sex tourism produces a detrimental impact on the children’s capacity to achieve their goals within the education system. Sex tourism may reinforce traditional colonial attitudes towards race and gender, which serve to deepen existing socioeconomic inequalities. Local communities are often reluctant to intervene in cases of child sexual exploitation, given the complex underlying economic precipitants and the greater level of public acceptability of prostitution in some countries. Such attitudes render children far more vulnerable to being absorbed by the adult sex trade and becoming sexually exploited by sex tourists, who may use the anonymity afforded by the dark web as a global networking tool to share information with other sex tourists.

The COVID-19 pandemic has led to school closures and a higher risk of contact between children and online sexual predators. It has isolated victims of child trafficking and sex tourism from available support structures and jeopardised their usual escape routes. The reported 30% increase in consumption of online child pornography during recent periods of pandemic lockdown in Europe, for example, have further increased the demand for child exploitation [ 69 ]. The current restrictions on international travel will undoubtedly influence sex tourism patterns worldwide, leading to greater degrees of domestic child abuse and online sexual exploitation. Further research may shed a light on this and other COVID-related secondary effects on the sex tourism industry.

Future considerations in sex tourism

While the world prepares for a cautious return to routine international travel in a future post-COVID era [ 70 ], we may ponder what constitutes a traveller or a tourist in the modern era. Opperman proposed the idea of a ‘cyberspace tourist’ in his paper on sex tourism [ 71 ]. While we have not found any further literature on this subject, is a person who sits at a computer in his/her home and pays for a voyeuristic virtual reality experience involving a foreigner thousands of miles away a cyber-sex tourist? With the rapid advancements in technology in recent years, we may contemplate whether people even need to leave their home to “travel”. It is conceivable that future sexual experiences will mirror these changes in travel patterns. With PrEP being a recent development, the role it plays in protecting travellers exposed to HIV overseas remains to be seen. This is a potential area of research activity as it becomes established as a mainstay preventive option. Possible areas of unmet need in sex tourism research are presented in Table 5 .

Limitations of current review

Strengths of our review include its multidisciplinary authorship, its broad coverage of diverse facets of sex tourism, and the focus on the most recent literature on the subject. Limitations of our approach include its restriction to articles published in the English language and the use of a single medical literature database. Accessing literature on sex tourism from Latin America and the Caribbean, using the Latin American and Caribbean Health Sciences Literature virtual library, for example, may have provided deeper insights into the impact of sex tourism on host communities. It is reasonable to assume that relevant literature on sex tourism resides in the social sciences literature such as the Social Sciences Citation Index of the Web of Science. Future reviews on this topic should also consult an appropriate social sciences database and refer to relevant material from the anthropological literature.

In our review of the literature associated with sex and travel, it was clear that the same set of risk behaviours and consequences applied to diverse groups. We recommend that more research be conducted into novel and effective interventions for modifying these high-risk behaviours. Travellers should be informed of the increased risks of STI before they travel. They should be aware of the prevalence of STIs in the area they plan to visit, and the risks associated with their sexual practices when they travel, including engaging with commercial sex workers, practising chemsex, engaging in unprotected sexual intercourse, and becoming the victim of sexual violence. They should also be informed about how to access appropriate medical care overseas and as returned travellers, should they require it.

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The authors are grateful for the assistance received from Dr. Amy Abrahams and Dr. Stuart MacLeod in identifying appropriate source material for an earlier version of this manuscript.

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GTF conceived the idea for the review. GTF and AH planned the literature search strategy. TSL conducted the literature search with assistance from GTF, AH and CN. TSL prepared the first draft of the manuscript, which was edited for significant intellectual content by GTF, AH and CN. All authors read and approved the final version of the manuscript.

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Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature

Timothy siliang lu.

1 School of Medicine, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

Andrea Holmes

2 Saolta University Hospital Healthcare Group, University Hospital Galway, Galway, Ireland

Chris Noone

3 School of Psychology, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland

Gerard Thomas Flaherty

4 School of Medicine, International Medical University, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

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All material referenced in the preparation of this work are available from the corresponding author.

Conclusions

Literature search strategy

Epidemiology of sex and travel

In the context of this review, we define casual sex as sexual relations undertaken without serious intent or emotional commitment between individuals who are not established sexual partners or do not know each other well. Men were more likely to seek out or engage in casual or risky sex behaviours (e.g., multiple partners, unprotected intercourse) while travelling [ 4 – 6 ]. As many as 1 in 10 men were recorded as having an overseas partner in a British study [ 6 ], and different categories of male sex tourist have also been proposed in the literature [ 7 ], ranging from the ‘macho lad’ asserting his dominance over foreign women to the ‘white knight’ saving women from commercial sex work. A study from the United States showed that female travellers had a greater preference for travel to European or tropical countries, and that sex was more likely to occur on group tours, sightseeing or backpacking holidays lasting fewer than 14 days [ 8 ]. Female sex tourism has also been described in Caribbean destinations such as Jamaica, with Euro-American women purchasing the services of so-called “Rent-A-Dreads”, local men who seek out relationships with tourist women for economic gain [ 9 ]. Younger women were reported to prefer expatriates and other tourists as sexual partners [ 10 ], while men of all ages and older women were reported to exercise a preference for local partners.

Characteristics of popular sex tourism destinations [ 5 , 13 – 15 ]

STI sexually transmitted infection

Several studies report that longer duration of travel (greater than 1 month), travelling alone or with friends, alcohol or drug use, being younger and being single were factors associated with higher levels of casual sex overseas [ 4 – 6 ]. A study conducted in Sweden reported conflicting data, showing that short term travellers (less than 5 days) were 20 times more likely to engage in casual sex [ 16 ]. While few studies offered information linking different ethnicities to sexual behaviour overseas, one British study found that non-white citizens were more likely to engage in sexual behaviour while travelling [ 6 ]. Migrants and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ+) community are also discussed frequently in the sex tourism literature. A summary of the characteristics associated with sexual risk behaviour is shown in Table 2 . This will be explored further in this review. Studies of travellers engaging in sex with tourism representatives [ 11 ], sex workers and fellow travellers [ 5 ] show that choice of partner while travelling is not limited to any particular demographic.

Summary of the characteristics of a typical sex tourist [ 4 – 6 , 8 , 16 – 23 ]

LGBTQ+ Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender and Queer

Commercial sex work and travel

Summary of commercial sex worker studies

CSW commercial sex workers; STI sexually transmitted infections

Sexually transmitted infections

The LGBTQ+ community and travel sex behaviour

The effects of alcohol and drugs on sex tourism

Sexual assault and violence in travellers

Pre-travel health recommendations

STI sexually transmitted infection; HIV human immunodeficiency virus; PrEP pre-exposure prophylaxis

Child sex tourism

The effects of wealth and mobility on sex tourism

Impact of sex tourism on host communities

Future considerations in sex tourism

Sex tourism research priorities

PrEP pre-exposure prophylaxis

Limitations of current review

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful for the assistance received from Dr. Amy Abrahams and Dr. Stuart MacLeod in identifying appropriate source material for an earlier version of this manuscript.

Authors’ contributions

None received.

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Not applicable.

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The authors state that they have no conflicts of interest to declasre.

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sex tourism

Alisdair rogers,, noel castree,, rob kitchin.

Travel to another location for the purposes of buying sex. Travel usually occurs from a place where prostitution is illegal to one where it is legal, little policed, or significantly cheaper, and can take place within a country or between nations. It is also infused with cultural ideas of sexuality and exoticism. The travel is either organized within the tourism sector, or from outside using its structures and networks. It is thought to be worth several billion dollars a year and contributes to the practice of sex ... ...

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Sex Tourism

First Online: 15 October 2013

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Brandy Bang 6 ,
Paige L. Baker 6 ,
Alexis Carpinteri 7 &
Vincent B. Van Hasselt 6

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Sex tourism is the complicated nexus of prostitution and tourism. Sex tourism is a sector of the international tourism trade. More specifically, offenders utilize the tourist industry to travel to different countries for the explicit purpose of engaging in sexual acts with minors in nations where child prostitution and exploitation laws are more lax than those in the United States. Essentially, it links global offenders with local victims to facilitate sexual exploitation of minors without the threat of prosecution. Sex tourism is often present in countries that offer lower ages of sexual consent, legalized prostitution, and where extradition laws are absent. Research has identified Asia, Central America, and South America as primary hubs for sex tourism. Offenders can either be preferential or situational abusers. Similar to the mechanism of prostitution, sex tourism includes both procurers and facilitators. Sex tours can be booked and planned in a manner similar to typical family vacations. Tourists can independently plan their vacations via the Internet, or sex tours can be organized by travel agencies. Unlike previously discussed CSEC crimes, the actual exploitation and fiscal exchange occurs in foreign countries with foreign-born children. Victims of sex tourism are characterized by the same vulnerability factors as other CSEC victims but by definition are not United States citizens. Lack of education, poverty, disintegrated or neglectful families, and physical or sexual abuse are common risk factors for children coerced into sex tourism.

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Bang, B., Baker, P.L., Carpinteri, A., Van Hasselt, V.B. (2014). Sex Tourism. In: Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children. SpringerBriefs in Psychology(). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-01878-2_7

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Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism

Equality Now tackles sexual exploitation in travel and tourism, often called “sex tourism”, a global issue that cuts across national borders and state lines. “Sex tourists” travel to buy sex from vulnerable women, girls and other vulnerable people, often from poor and marginalized communities.

Sexual exploitation in travel and tourism has become far more complex, involving not only tourists but business travelers, migrant/transient workers, and ‘voluntourists’ intent on exploiting women, girls, and other vulnerable people, as well as large numbers of domestic travelers. ECPAT’s global study on sexual exploitation in travel and tourism confirms that offenders can come from any background and do not all fit the stereotypical profile: a white, Western, wealthy, middle-aged male pedophile. Some may be pedophiles but most are not. Both the age of the clients and the age of the victims are decreasing .

There is increasing recognition of the links between organized sexual exploitation and travel for business or leisure, including for major sporting events such as the Super Bowl.

Trafficking for Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism

Women, girls, and other vulnerable people are often trafficked domestically or internationally to meet demand. Equality Now was one of the first human rights organizations to recognize the link between “sex tourism” and sex trafficking, and to focus on shutting down sex tour operators.

What is Equality Now doing to end sexual exploitation in travel and tourism?

Equality Now is working with Trace Kenya and LifeBloom Services International to call for legal reform that will protect women and girls from sexual exploitation and end impunity for perpetrators. As well as working on reform of national law including the Sexual Offenses Act, the Counter Trafficking In Persons Act, and the Children Act we are also engaging with local government to promote county-level laws and policies. Through our partners, we also engage with judiciary and law enforcement to encourage them to take a more gendered, survivor-centered approach.

Our Impact: Tackling Sexual Exploitation in Travel and Tourism

Taking on big apple oriental tours.

We campaigned to shut down Big Apple Oriental Tours, a New York City-based company exploiting women and girls in the Philippines and Thailand. In 2007, our efforts led New York to amend its anti-trafficking law, which gave police the tools to prosecute sex tour operators. After many investigations, we helped convict the company’s co-owner Douglas Allen of promoting prostitution in 2013.

Passing First US State Law Against Sex Tourism

We began our campaign to shut down Hawaii-based sex tour operator Video Travel, a company exploiting women and girls in Thailand. Our campaign and legal support inspired Hawaii to introduce and pass the first state law to criminalize sex tourism. Video Travel’s proprietor had his travel agency license revoked and is no longer allowed to operate in Hawaii.

Calling on the US Government to End Sex Tourism

We called on the US government to stop sex tourism and to investigate GF Tours, a company exploiting women in Southeast Asia. We lobbied for stronger enforcement of federal anti-trafficking laws, which make sex tourism a crime, to shut them down. Due to our efforts, GF Tours removed graphic content from its materials.

First Sex Tourism Conviction in New York State

Equality Now brought the case of Jump Off Destinations, a New York-based sex tour operator traveling to the Dominican Republic, to the attention of the Manhattan District Attorney. In 2007, the owner was found guilty, the first time that New York State law prohibiting the promotion of prostitution was used to prosecute a sex tour operator and the first conviction of its kind in the US.

Standing Up for Exploited Girls

We led a civil case in the US on behalf of Brazilian girls who were sexually exploited by a US-based sex tour operator. With pro bono support from a law firm, we filed the first known civil action under the Trafficking Victims Protection Act. In 2015, the case was settled. The funds helped the girls rebuild their lives.

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sex tourism

tourism with the intention of exploiting permissive or poorly enforced local laws concerning sex, esp sex with children

Feb. 12, 2019

International sex tourism is a booming industry. It’s also been happening since the 18th century.

Vcu history professor christopher ewing, ph.d., talks about his new course, international sex tourism 1750-present., share this story.

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By Brian McNeill

Alongside the rise of globalization has been an increasing growth of international tourism for the purpose of “exotic” sex.

International sex tourism has become a booming industry, but it is not a new phenomenon. A new course taught by Christopher Ewing , Ph.D., an assistant professor in the Department of History in the College of Humanities and Sciences , explores the history of international sex tourism from the second half of the 18th century — when European powers dramatically expanded colonization efforts in the Eastern Hemisphere — up to the modern era.

Ewing, an expert on LGBTQ+ history and modern European history, recently discussed his course in an interview with VCU News. International Sex Tourism 1750-Present investigates how travel has provided a means for middle- and upper-class Europeans and North Americans to realize sexual fantasies that hinge on the racialization and exoticization of people in the Global South, while simultaneously generating new forms of labor migration as populations move in pursuit of sex and work.

What led you to teach the history of international sex tourism and what is the course’s objective?

What I wanted to do with this course is bring my own research — which looks at West German gay sex tourism after the Second World War — into conversation with other trends in international sex tourism that have a lot to do with colonialism.

That’s why we start around 1750, specifically in 1763, after the end of the Seven Years War, [when] we begin to see a shift in focus in western European colonialism from the Western Hemisphere toward the Eastern Hemisphere, specifically looking at the French occupation of Algeria beginning in 1830 and the English occupation and entrenchment in India.

What I wanted to do is look at: OK, how does colonialism structure sexual desire? How does colonialism structure travel in pursuit of sex abroad? And build from there, using colonialism as a framework to look at these international trends in racialized sexual desire that continue today.

Because we’re still living with the legacies of colonialism and how people think about sex, both within Western Europe and abroad.

What overarching themes do you see with respect to the history of international sex tourism?

One theme that comes up both in my research and in this class is orientalism and how it’s both remarkably durable and incredibly malleable because you can’t pin it down to [the idea that] all Western Europeans thought about people of color, particularly people from North Africa, the Middle East and South Asia, in one particular way over time.

But what they did do is bring that knowledge of what they categorize to be the “Orient” into conversation with their sexual desires. Thinking about, OK, what we know about the so-called Orient at a particular moment in time is going to inflect desires in many different ways. And so, at least in my research, what you see is a weird shift, where in the ’50s and ’60s West German gay men are going to North Africa, drawing on those old ideas of so-called Arabic sexual perversity and being like, “Oh wow, there are so many opportunities for homosexual contact here because of that.” Now, at least in Western Europe, you see the opposite where Islam specifically as linked to racial conceptions of Middle Eastern and North African people is seen as antithetical to homosexuality.

Both are linked to Orientalism. Both are linked to a certain knowledge of this vague geographical area. But it can take on different forms at different times depending on who you’re talking to.

Christopher Ewing's course, "International Sex Tourism 1750-Present,” is exploring the history of international sex tourism, from the second half of the 18th century up to the modern era.

What do you hope the students get out of this class?

I want them to take an approach to contemporary issues around sex tourism that are historically rooted and also complex: On the one hand, we have to think about exploitation that goes on. On the other hand, we have to allow room for agency of people of color, sex workers abroad or people engaged in other forms of transactional sex or people who aren’t engaged in transactional sex but are sleeping with people that we might call sex tourists.

So taking both and thinking about: What are ways in which we can talk about exploitation while allowing room for agency and not being moralizing about sexuality? And how do we think about that as connected to the past

What are some ways in which international sex tourism has changed during the period you’re looking at? What are some of the ways it has evolved?

You have a couple of things that are conceptual shifts and also material shifts.

When we’re looking conceptually, you definitely see a change from the way in which travelers during the Enlightenment conceived of where they were going. They had this idea of, “Let’s go out and let’s categorize things.” Part of that categorization is also, “Let’s go have sex.” That kind of undermines it, but also supports it.

Around the Romantic period at the turn of the 19th century, you have a new understanding that going abroad is going to be something that’s transformative. That continues into what we might call the Victorian period, but that then comes into conjunction with an idea that Northern Europe is urbanized and gross and industrial and everywhere else is fun and sexy and clean, but also falling apart in weird ways.

By the 20th century you have major shifts in terms of thinking about race, where scientific racism comes into play, social Darwinism and eugenic thinking — that’s the idea of Western Europeans as being scientifically racially superior, but that doesn’t preclude possibilities for sex abroad.

And then just jumping through into the post-[WWII] period with decolonization. You have new ways of thinking about that, where leftist activists are starting to make the claim that going abroad and sleeping with anti-colonial revolutionaries constitutes anti-racist anti-colonialism, when in fact, it’s linked to this longer history of colonialism and it’s always going to be racially tinged.

You have this long timeline of large conceptual shifts that go back to this underlying current of Orientalism. At the same time, gradually over time, sex tourism becomes increasingly more accessible to people.

With technological innovations in the 19th century, with the advent of steam ships, things like that, it becomes easier to travel. In the 20th century, particularly by the 1960s and 1970s, jet travel becomes really easy. So that also changes where people are going.

In the Enlightenment era, it was all about the “grand tour” — going across Europe to Italy and Greece. That still exists today. I talk to my German friends, not necessarily about sex tourism, but they love Italy, they love Greece. They’ll still go there. But at the same time, now Southeast Asia is more accessible than it ever would have been in the 18th, 19th or early 20th century.

At the same time, with the emergence of European colonialism in these places, these also open up new spaces for sex tourists that weren’t necessarily accessible prior to European colonization.

So you see shifts happening in that material way where it’s like: OK, what becomes more accessible at a different movement because of geopolitics and technology?

What does sexual tourism look like today? And how has it been influenced by the history you’re describing?

Today you still have an ongoing trend of people with money — not necessarily even from Western Europe or North America, but East Asian countries and [Persian] Gulf states — who will go abroad in pursuit of transactional sex. At the same time, because tourism is so easily accessible to middle- and upper-class people around the world, you have people who will go abroad to tour and then use sexuality and sexual encounters as a way of exploring a new place.

You might have sex tourism [in which] students from the United States go to Southeast Asia and want to get access to the culture and then find locals to sleep with or build relationships with or fall in love with. Those are also forms of sex tourism, if we take a very broad definition.

Really it’s just any form of tourism that you can imagine where sexuality comes into play, where there is sexual contact. I encourage my students to think broadly about what sex tourism could be, because we have the conception that sex tourism is Western European and North American white men going abroad in pursuit of transactional sex with women of color. That does happen and we have to talk about that and we have to think about that, but at the same time, that happens alongside all these other different forms of travel and sex together.

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Section 9 - Adventure Travel
Section 10 - African Safaris

Sex & Travel

Cdc yellow book 2024.

Author(s): Melanie Taylor, Ina Park

A natural human desire for novel experiences, coupled with the often-experienced loss of inhibition associated with being away from home, can lead some travelers to take greater than usual sexual behavioral risks (e.g., engaging in sex with new, unknown partners; having sex with multiple partners; connecting with sex networks) while abroad. Any of these behaviors can increase the traveler’s risk for exposure to sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including HIV. Use of alcohol or drugs (which further decrease inhibition), or geosocial networking applications (“apps” which increase the efficiency of meeting sexual partners while abroad) can amplify a traveler’s chances of having an at-risk exposure, in some cases substantially.

Clinicians have an opportunity to help patients reduce their risk of exposure to STIs through pretravel behavioral-prevention and risk-reduction counseling and medical care. Elements of the pretravel preparation include STI prevention guidance (e.g., advocating for the use of condoms or other barrier methods); STI screening, treatment, and vaccines; and a discussion about HIV pre- and postexposure prophylaxis. Consider providing preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent HIV infection in travelers planning to have condomless sex. The pretravel consultation also gives clinicians a chance to review safety recommendations to prevent sexual assault during travel.

Sex While Traveling

Sex while traveling encompasses the categories of casual consensual sex, sex tourism, sexual violence or assault, connection to sex trafficking, and sexual exploitation of children.

Casual Consensual Sex

Casual consensual sex during travel describes informal, non-transactional sexual encounters with other travelers or locals. Longer duration of travel, traveling alone or with friends, alcohol or drug use, younger age, and being single are factors associated with engaging in casual sex while traveling internationally. Other associations with casual sex are listed in Box 9-14 . Two meta-analyses estimated that 20%–34% of male international travelers engage in casual sex abroad, and that 43%–49% of all travelers participating in casual sex abroad have condomless sex.

Box 9-14 Factors associated with higher frequency of casual or unprotected sex abroad

Casual sex at home and during a previous travel experience
Expectation of casual sex while abroad
History of previous sexually transmitted infection
Illicit drug use, alcohol abuse, tobacco use
Long-term travel (expatriates, military, Peace Corps volunteers)
Traveling without a partner (either alone or with friends)
Younger age
≥2 sex partners in the last 2 years

Men Who Have Sex With Men

For men who have sex with men (MSM), conclusions from the literature regarding their sexual behavior when traveling are conflicting. Some studies examining MSM sexual behavior when traveling have concluded that this population is more likely to engage in condomless anal intercourse with partners of unknown HIV status; to have concurrent or multiple sex partners; or to have sex in conjunction with substance use while traveling. These can be particularly true if the reason for travel is to attend group sex events or gatherings (e.g., cruises, circuit parties). Other reports, however, indicate that MSM might adapt their behaviors when traveling to destinations perceived to have a higher risk for HIV. One study found that MSM who travel internationally were less likely to have condomless anal intercourse with partners abroad compared to partners encountered at home or during domestic travel.

Sex Tourism

Travel for the specific purpose of procuring sex is considered “sex tourism,” and sex tourism destinations frequently are countries where commercial sex is legal. In some countries, sex tourism supports sex trafficking, among the largest and most lucrative criminal industries in the world. Sex tourists have traditionally been men from high-income countries who travel to low- and middle-income countries to pay for sex with local women, including commercial sex workers. Sex tourism among American and European women also has been described, particularly to the Caribbean.

Having condomless sex with commercial sex workers is associated with an increased risk for STIs. Multidrug-resistant gonorrhea infections have been linked to encounters with sex workers. High rates of HIV are also frequently found among sex workers, with a systematic review describing a global prevalence of 11.8%. Among sex workers in Thailand, however, HIV rates of up to 44% have been described; in Kenya, the rate among sex workers has been reported to be even higher (up to 88%).

Sexual Violence & Assault

People of any age, gender, or sexual orientation can be victims of sexual violence during travel and should be aware of this risk. The risk for sexual assault is greater among young women traveling alone and in regions of high sexual violence prevalence (e.g., central and southern sub-Saharan Africa, Andean Latin America, Australasia). In addition, some studies have identified that young gay and bisexual males (MSM) traveling internationally might be victims of sexual violence more frequently than females or heterosexual males. Sexual violence can occur more often in association with international recreational travel, but it is also reported in travelers participating in humanitarian aid work. Alcohol and drug use have been shown to increase vulnerability for sexual assault. Unfamiliar cultural norms, environments, language barriers, and safety concerns might also increase the risk.

Post–Sexual Assault Medical Care

Victims of sexual violence (particularly rape) should seek immediate medical attention. Health care sought after 72 hours could negate the benefits of postexposure prophylaxis for HIV and STIs, lower the effectiveness of emergency contraception, and reduce the value of any collected forensic evidence. Seeking medical care following a sexual assault can, however, be difficult in places where safety is a concern, where health care is not easily accessed, and where language and other barriers might not facilitate appropriate evaluation.

In addition to HIV and other STI postexposure prophylaxis, emergency contraception, and the forensic examination, medical attention after sexual assault should include treatment of injuries and provision of mental health and other supportive care. Adolescent-adapted services should be available and sought to address the related but different needs of youth who have been victims of sexual violence.

Sex Trafficking & Sexual Exploitation of Children

Although commercial sex work is legal in some parts of the world, sex trafficking, sex with a minor, and child pornography are always criminal activities according to US law, and travelers can be prosecuted in the United States even if they participated in such activities abroad. The Trafficking Victims Protection Act makes it illegal to recruit, entice, or obtain a person of any age to engage in commercial sex acts or to benefit from such activities.

Sex With Minors

Federal law bars US residents traveling abroad from having sex with minors; this applies to all travelers, both adult and youth. Travel health providers should inform student travelers and other young people going abroad that according to US law, it is illegal for a US resident to have sex with a minor in another country. The legal age of consent varies around the world, from 11–21 years old. Some countries have no legal age of consent, with local laws forbidding all sexual relations outside of marriage.

Child Pornography

Regardless of the local age of consent, participation in child pornography anywhere in the world is illegal in the United States. US Code Title 18, Chapter 110 , prohibits sex with minors, as well as the purchase, procurement, holding, or storage of material depicting such acts. These crimes are subject to prosecution with penalties of up to 30 years in prison. Victims of child pornography suffer multiple forms of abuse (emotional, physical, psychological, as well as sexual), poverty and homelessness, and health problems, including physical injury, STIs, other infections and illnesses, drug and alcohol addiction, and malnourishment.

Sexual Exploitation of Children

Sexual exploitation of children in travel and tourism affects all countries of the world regardless of income level. Offenders can include expatriates, humanitarian aid workers, international business travelers, military personnel, people attending large-scale sporting and cultural events, teachers, travelers and tourists, and volunteers. Financial vulnerabilities of families and communities resulting from the millions of travel and tourism jobs lost due to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic, the availability of cheap and accessible travel, and expanding access to information and communication technologies are expected to increase opportunities for child sexual exploitation.

Combatting Sexual Exploitation of Children

To combat sexual exploitation of children, some international hotels and other tourism services have voluntarily adopted a code of conduct that includes training their employees to recognize and report suspicious activities. Tourist establishments supporting this initiative to protect children from sex tourism are listed online. Providers and travelers who suspect child sexual exploitation occurring abroad can report tips anonymously by calling the Homeland Security Investigations Tip Line (toll-free at 866-347-2423), or by submitting information online to US Immigration and Customs Enforcement or the International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children .

In the United States, the National Center for Missing & Exploited Children’s Cyber Tipline collects reports of child prostitution and other crimes against children (toll-free at 800-843-5678).

Protect Act

Since 2003, when Congress passed the federal PROTECT Act, US Immigrations and Customs Enforcement has arrested >11,000 offenders for child sex tourism and exploitation, including 1,100 outside of the United States. The PROTECT Act strengthens the US government’s ability to prosecute and punish crimes related to sex tourism, including incarceration of ≤30 years for acts committed at home or abroad.

Cooperation of the host country is required to open an investigation of criminal activity, resulting in a much lower than hoped for conviction rate. In some places, the judicial system might be prone to bribery and corruption, or the government is otherwise willing to expand tourism and the money it brings at the expense of children being trafficked for sex. The US Department of State has published a list of 20 ways to fight human trafficking , including recommendations for youth and their parents, attorneys, health care providers, journalists, and other stakeholders.

Sexually Transmitted Infections

See Sec. 11, Ch. 10, Sexually Transmitted Infections , for details regarding the management of STIs in returned travelers.

Epidemiology

In 2019, the World Health Organization estimated that 376 million new infections with curable sexually transmitted pathogens (chlamydia, gonorrhea, trichomoniasis, and syphilis) occur annually. Globally, >500 million adults are estimated to be infected with a genital herpes virus; ≈40 million people are infected with HIV; and >300 million with human papillomavirus infections, the cause of cervical cancer. Over 30 infections are sexually transmitted, several of which are neither curable nor vaccine preventable.

The distribution of STI prevalence and STI resistance to available treatment varies, and some countries and regions have very high rates of STIs. International travelers having sex with new partners while abroad are exposed to different “sexual networks” than at home and can serve as a conduit for importing novel or antimicrobial-resistant STIs into parts of the world where they are unknown or rare. For example, gonorrhea (among the more common STIs globally with ≈78 million new cases in 2016) has become extensively drug resistant in some parts of the world. Multidrug-resistant gonorrhea infections have been associated with unprotected sex and commercial sex during travel. Patients presenting with antimicrobial-resistant gonococcal infections should prompt providers to inquire about their travel history and the travel history of their sex partners.

STI incidence is increased ≤3-fold in people who experience casual sex while traveling internationally, a consequence of new sexual partnerships and unprotected intercourse. Condoms prevent both STIs and unwanted pregnancy. Preventive vaccines (which can be considered as part of pretravel care) are available for some infections transmitted through intercourse (e.g., hepatitis A, hepatitis B, human papillomavirus). HIV PrEP might be appropriate for travelers planning to engage in condomless sex during travel. Travelers should consider packing condoms from their home country to avoid the need to search for them in the countries visited during travel. Women carrying condoms in luggage might need to conceal these to avoid questions related to sexual activity or assumed behaviors.

In May 2022, a multinational outbreak of monkeypox ( mpox ) began; 3 months later (by the end of August) it involved people from >90 countries. During the outbreak, the causative agent, monkeypox virus (see Sec. 5, Part 2, Ch. 22, Smallpox & Other Orthopoxvirus-Associated Infections ), spread person-to-person primarily through close skin-to-skin (including sexual) contact. Most cases occurred among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men; international travel played a role in introducing the virus to new countries. Remind all travelers that sex with new partners can increase their risk of contracting infections, including mpox.

People at risk of mpox exposure and infection during travel should complete mpox vaccination series at least two weeks prior to departure. Refer susceptible travelers who have been exposed to mpox for vaccination, as soon as possible (ideally within 4 days of exposure) to help prevent the disease or make it less severe.

The following authors contributed to the previous version of this chapter: Jay Keystone, Kimberly A. Workowski, Elissa Meites

Bibliography

End Child Prostitution and Trafficking (ECPAT). Summary paper on sexual exploitation of children in travel and tourism. Bangkok: ECPAT; 2020. Available from: www.ecpat.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/ECPAT-Summary-paper-on-Sexual-Exploitation-of-Children-in-Travel-and-Tourism-2020.pdf .

Kennedy KM, Flaherty GT. The risk of sexual assault and rape during international travel: implications for the practice of travel medicine. J Travel Med. 2015;22(4):282–4.

Lee VC, Sullivan PS, Baral SD. Global travel and HIV/STI epidemics among MSM: what does the future hold? Sex Health. 2017;14(1):51–8.

Lu TS, Holmes A, Noone C, Flaherty GT. Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature. Trop Dis Travel Med Vaccines. 2020;6(1):24.

Minhaj FS, Ogale YP, Whitehill F, Schultz J, Foote M, Davidson W, et al. Monkeypox Outbreak—Nine States, May 2022. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2022;71(23):764–9.

Newman WJ, Holt BW, Rabun JS, Phillips G, Scott CL. Child sex tourism: extending the borders of sexual offender legislation. Int J Law Psychiatry. 2011;34(2):116–21.

Svensson P, Sundbeck M, Persson KI, Stafstrom M, Östergren P-O, Mannheimer L, et al. A meta-analysis and systematic literature review of factors associated with sexual risk-taking during international travel. Travel Med Infect Dis. 2018;24:65–88.

Truong HM, Fatch R, Grasso M, Robertson T, Tao L, Chen YH, et al. Gay and bisexual men engage in fewer risky sexual behaviors while traveling internationally: a cross sectional study in San Francisco. Sex Transm Infect. 2015;91(3):220–5.

US Department of Justice. Extraterritorial sexual exploitation of children. Available from: www.justice.gov/criminal-ceos/extraterritorial-sexual-exploitation-children .

Vivancos R, Abubakar I, Hunter PR. Foreign travel, casual sex, and sexually transmitted infections: systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Infect Dis. 2010;14(10):e842–51.

World Health Organization. Health care for women subjected to intimate partner violence or sexual violence. Available from: www.who.int/reproductivehealth/publications/violence/vaw-clinical-handbook/en .

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Here are the top 10 sex tourism destinations

From Europe to Southeast Asia, we list places that are known as destinations for sex tourism.

The sex tourism industry is worth billions with millions of sex workers scattered around the world (Photo: Pixabay)

It turns out that while planning for a vacation, there are people who actually are looking for places where they can have uninhibited sex – not necessarily with their partners.

Some people look at sexual encounters while travelling as a way of enhancing their travel experience. And to top it all, the sex tourism industry is worth billions with millions of sex workers, both legal and illegal scattered around the globe.

Here are 10 of the biggest sex tourism destinations around the world:

Germany : Prostitution and even street prostitution is wide spread and organised sector in Germany and it is completely legal. The country has a long history of sexual tourism with organised prostitution in the country dating back to the 1200’s AD. Interestingly, people join the flesh trade in Germany willingly and there are advertisements, and job offers through HR companies. Frauenhäuser ("women's houses") have always been a common part of German history and were looked upon as places which helped curb greater crimes by offering their services. The practice carries on till date.

Dominican Republic : Travellers to the Dominican Republic will see legal brothels, marriage parlours and prostitutes openly roaming around in many of the downtown areas of Santo Domingo and Puerto Plata. The Dominican Republic ranks fourth highest in the world among countries exporting large numbers of sex workers.

Spain: Party destinations in Spain that include Madrid, Ibiza and Barcelona which are known for their riveting club and bar scene have also become popular sex tourism destinations. Street that is known as the red light area.

Malaysia : While prostitution is illegal in Malaysia, it is still rampantly practiced and services are widely available. The demand is particularly high in places like Penang, Kuala Lumpur and Ipoh. Most of the sex workers are trafficked from neighbouring countries like China.

Kenya : While it is one of the countries in Africa which is relatively easier to visit, it also has one of the largest sex tourism industries on the continent. The country does not discourage the practice despite the high level of STDs and HIV prevalent. Interestingly, Kenya is a popular destination among older white women who want to 'buy' some time with a man. Children are lured into prostitution by tourists willing to pay handsomely for sex in secret locations.

The Netherlands: Often considered to be one of the most popular sex tourism destinations in the world. Prostitution is legal and regulated while Amsterdam’s, De Wallen, is the largest and most famous red-light district in the city and a famous destination for international sex tourism.

The Philippines : The country has a huge industry domestically with an estimated 800,000 men, women and children working in the trade. It is believed that the country’s international image as a sex destination was formed due to the ‘girlie’ bars that were prevalent during World War II.

Brazil : Another place where prostitution is legal, Brazil however says it is illegal to operate a brothel or to employ sex workers in any other way. Still, dozens of brothels fill the cities, where prostitutes engage in sexual activities.

Colombia : Colombian women are often considered to be one of the most beautiful women in the world, and perhaps this is one factor that has led to sex tourism flourishing in the country. While sex trade is completely legal here, the government is taking efforts to curb areas that re illegal, like child prostitution.

Thailand : The industry apparently started in the country during the Vietnam, war and is a legal profession here with over three million sex workers earning a livelihood in the country.

Tags: adult tourism , sex , destinations , germany , dominican republic , spain , malaysia , kenya , the netherlands , the philippines , brazil , colombia , thailand

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‘Kink tourism’ is on the rise – but does it live up to the hype?

Curious to see how the hospitality industry is embracing eroticism, jordan gray and her wife checked into london’s the mandrake hotel with its new high-end ‘kink concierge’ service – and found a world of mischief, sensuality and exploration, article bookmarked.

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There’s more to The Mandrake than meets the eye...

T here is something new and mysterious going down at this five-star Fitzrovian Hotel.

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“Kink tourism” is on the rise. There is a heightened discourse around the benefits of sexual exploration. Couples (and singles alike) are taking ever-more extravagant ownership over their erotic adventures – and the hospitality industry has responded. Hôtel Amour ( Paris ) comes replete with a feast of phallic paraphernalia. Hedonism II ( Jamaica ) is a couples-only resort that offers either a ‘rude’ or ‘prude’ package, depending on your penchant for nudity. The Erotic Suite at The Palms Casino Resort ( Las Vegas ) boasts mirrored ceilings, an 8ft rotating bed and a dancing pole in the shower. It’s all good fun… but where’s the nuance?

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Charcuterie Board for Two: how to build a date night charcuterie board

If you want to plan a romantic evening at home but don’t want to spend hours creating a multi-course dinner, make a date night charcuterie board for two. A charcuterie board can please all your senses, including your sense of adventure. Best of all, it can be fun to prepare – unleash your artistic side – and it can make an interactive treat to share with your lover.

I’ve created a simple guide for you to build a romantic charcuterie board. With this plan, you can create a beautiful charcuterie for two that will suit any taste and style. It’s totally foolproof. I’ve included options for most dietary restrictions, even instructions for a vegan board.

But first, let’s get a few of the frequently asked questions about this style of appetizer plate.

Table of Contents

What is charcuterie?

Charcuterie is, by definition, preserved meat (especially pork): salted, smoked, cured, confit-ed. But within the realm of charcuterie meats, there is an incredible variety. It ranges from hams and sausages to duck confit, rillettes and pâté. A traditional charcuterie board has a selection of these preserved meats varied by texture, flavor, and intensity, accompanied by assorted condiments for contrast and added zing.

How to pronounce charcuterie

Charcuterie is a French word. And although it may look intimidating, it is actually easy to pronounce. [shar-kew-tuh-ree]

Where did the charcuterie board originate?

The charcuterie board is originally French. The concept of charcuterie meats was invented in the 15th century as a way to use every part of an animal, not just the most choice cuts. Originally, charcuterie was made only from pork. But today charcuterie has evolved to include a variety of preserved meats and poultry. As a classically trained chef who loves innovation, I’m very excited to bring the joys of this delicious French snack to you.

Traditional, artisan-made charcuterie can be found just about anywhere you find old-school European cultures or new-school hipster butchers. Find that second group and you may also find some serious experimentation with traditional recipes introducing exciting new flavors and techniques. Take, for example, the leak ash porcini salami at Gwen in Los Angeles, or the clove-rubbed pork shoulder from Creminelli in Salt Lake City, Utah.

RELATED: The 5 Best Romantic Picnic Recipes

Can charcuterie be vegan?

Can the growing population of those who eschew meat enjoy a charcuterie tray? Must they stick with cashew cheese? Since the world of charcuterie seems to be all about reinterpreting traditions, why not stretch the limits a little more and expand the charcuterie table to accommodate everyone including vegetarians and vegans? You could even create healthy charcuterie.

All it takes to make a vegetarian charcuterie board is a little imagination. The same goes for making charcuterie vegan with irresistible vegan charcuterie recipes like mushroom pâtés and vegetable terrines. (I include links to inspiring recipes in my list of vegan charcuterie ideas.)

Where to begin

The first thing you need to do when planning a date night starring charcuterie is figure out how you’re going to serve it. With this grazing style of eating, the presentation is half the fun.

Start by selecting the right board

example of a charcuterie board to buy on a wooden table with a bottle of wine

Before you start thinking about what goes on a charcuterie board, you’ll want to make sure you have a good-looking board to lend to your charcuterie presentation. Consider gifting your lover a special board or platter you can use over and over again for intimate evenings with a well-planned charcuterie assortment.

Shop for beautiful charcuterie boards

Consider the 5 elements that go into the best DIY charcuterie boards

1. get personal with your theme.

Put a little thought into your selection. Having a theme in mind helps narrow the focus and makes it easier to choose. And there are a lot of choices to make! Consider featuring a place, a season, a flavor profile, or even a color. Or get really personal by creating a board highlighting your special someone’s favorite things.

2. Select the featured items first

When composing any type of board, I rely on the rule of 3s to anchor the presentation. With cheeses, I may select cheese by type of milk (cow, sheep, goat). Try composing your charcuterie board by region, (Italian, French, and Spanish), or feature one item three ways (like with the seafood lovers board in the examples). What about that vegan board? Consider these trios: grains, vegetables, and legumes; or wild mushrooms three ways.

3. Add creative condiments

Mustards, flavorful pickles, and olives are classic accompaniments for traditional charcuterie. But sweeter flavors are also welcome. Try Italian mostarda (sweet, spicy preserved fruits), jams and preserves, fresh or dried fruits, and nuts. All these flavorful bits are also welcome on any vegetarian charcuterie platter. Bread and crackers are also nice to have for building the perfect bite.

4. Consider where you’re serving charcuterie

Nothing says “impromptu picnic” like a decadent cheese and meat platter. Make sure yours is up for the adventure. Most preserved meats and cheeses lend themselves well to picnic baskets or backpacks. Condiments, grains, and softer vegetable items may prove slightly more challenging. If there’s something squishy or runny, make sure it’s packed in a sturdy container. Spice jars make great vessels for most condiments (just make sure liquids are well-sealed). Wrap them all up in colorful tea towels that can double as napkins and tablecloths in a pinch.

Here’s how to choose the best wine for a romantic picnic

When you set out to seduce, it’s important to be prepared. Besides, thinking ahead and having the necessities is sexy! Utensils, including a good picnic knife, are a must. Choose one with its own sheath over the blade for safety. This is my favorite picnic knife . Small cutting boards are great for prep AND for presentation. (These are the ones I use .) Pre-chilled beverages should also be on your checklist. And, of course, a trash bag or container to pack out the remains.

5. Consider how your charcuterie ingredients look together

You may have all the right moves and all the right foods, but don’t underestimate the seductive power of creative presentation. It starts in the kitchen when selecting ingredients for a charcuterie board: pick a variety of colors and shapes. Really shine by adding some chopped herbs or edible flowers for garnish.

Colorful charcuterie board with a variety of fruits and flowers to illustrate using color and garnishes

Lastly, see above for functional tips: colorful tea towels, a cutting board and a knife, add light-weight colorful (and reusable) plates and utensils if you’re taking your charcuterie to an outdoor location, and something delicious, perhaps sparkling wine, to sip along with your tasty treats. Champagne and charcuterie are among my favorite food and wine pairing experiences.

How much charcuterie per person?

If you’re making charcuterie for a romantic evening, or afternoon, you want to plan on 2-3 ounces of charcuterie meat per person . Note that if you’re planning on serving charcuterie in place of dinner, you will want to plan on 5 ounces per person.

Just keep in mind that most charcuterie meats are very rich, so you’ll want to serve it with lots of different breads and/or crackers, pickles and other garnishes. (For vegan charcuterie boards, make sure to have 2-3 ounces of proteins and rich items like a vegetable terrine or 5 ounces for a meal.)

If you want to take these DIY charcuterie board ideas and use them for entertaining a crowd, plan on a good variety of 2-3 ounce appetizer portions and extra in reserve in case your easy charcuterie board is the hit of the party.

Building an aphrodisiac charcuterie board for two step-by-step

I’ve linked to recommended charcuterie board recipes and products within these lists. But if you don’t have a good, local source for meat and cheese for a charcuterie board, I highly recommend D’Artagnan . They make an outstanding source for anything that goes on a charcuterie plate.

A traditional charcuterie board with sliced baguette, saussicon, apple slices, nuts and blueberry jam

Once you’ve gathered your ingredients, assembling a charcuterie board is incredibly simple. This is all you have to do:

Get your board ready. (You’ll need a fairly large cheese board to serve your charcuterie. If this is something you don’t have, you can use a serving platter or tray.)
Assemble some small bowls or ramekins you can use for serving wet ingredients like mustard, olives or jam. You’ll only need them if your board isn’t large enough to accommodate everything without these ingredients making your breads and crackers soggy. If you’re using them, fill them and place them on the board.
If you’re adding cheese, slice it or add whole wedges to the board along with any pâtés. (Remember to add a knife for pâtés or cheeses that need cutting.)
Add the smoked and cured meats and or seafood to the board.
Add the breads, flatbreads and crackers just before serving. If you’ve run out of room on the platter, you can always serve these items on the side.

That’s all that goes into building a charcuterie board for an easy date night. The only things left to do are grab some napkins and open a bottle of wine!

Here are my favorite charcuterie menus for a romantic evening:

A simple board with classic French ingredients

Sliced smoked duck breast Pâté de Campagne Saucisson sec Dijon mustard Cornichons & pickled onions Wild blueberry preserves Baguette Cheese straws

Seafood board

Excellent quality tinned smoked mussels, oysters, and octopus Pickled shrimp Hot and cold smoked salmon Dill mustard Romesco sauce Peppadew peppers Lemon wedges Citrus cured olives Cracked pepper table water crackers Sourdough bread

Charcuterie board for vegans

David Lebovitz Faux Gras (modified with vegan butter and vegan brown sugar) Harrisa-Roasted Carrot and Bean Dip Mediterranean Olive and Vegetable Rillettes (from the classic book Charcuterie by Michael Ruhlman & Brian Polcyn) Carrot Top Pesto Balsamic crema Assorted olives Giardiniera (Italian-style pickled vegetables) Multi-grain baguette Sea salt flatbreads

Featured image by Alex Guillaume

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Is it cheating? It depends on your relationship, according to therapists

Posted: March 29, 2024 | Last updated: May 3, 2024

<p><a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/sliding-vs-deciding/201704/broken-hearts-and-deal-breakers-reasons-why-people-divorce" rel="noreferrer noopener">An article from <em>Psychology Today</em> discusses studies that found infidelity as a top reason marriages end in divorce</a>. Cheating may be the main cause of a divorce, or it could be the result of other problems in the relationship. Either way, couples may never get past an infidelity because it causes so much pain and a lack of trust.</p>

As how we date and mate has evolved over the years, from heteronormative marriages to swiping right on dating apps, so too has our idea of what constitutes cheating. Now more than ever, the concept of stepping out on a partner is more vague and the very definition varies. So what exactly is infidelity and how do some of the increasingly diverse dating labels fit into the discussion? Read on to find out.

<p class="p1"><span>According to <a href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/infidelity" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>Merriam-Webster</span></a>, the technical definition of infidelity is, “the act or fact of having a romantic or sexual relationship with someone other than one's husband, wife, or partner.” But that description is open to wide interpretation and varies by relationship.</span></p>

What is cheating?

According to Merriam-Webster , the technical definition of infidelity is, “the act or fact of having a romantic or sexual relationship with someone other than one's husband, wife, or partner.” But that description is open to wide interpretation and varies by relationship.

<p class="p1"><span>Infidelity has been around since the birth of relationships, but it wasn’t until the 1500s to 1600s that stepping out on your partner <span>became a punishable crime</span>. People who were caught cheating were routinely punished and jailed, especially in Puritan New England.</span></p>

Illegal infidelity

Infidelity has been around since the birth of relationships, but it wasn’t until the 1500s to 1600s that stepping out on your partner became a punishable crime . People who were caught cheating were routinely punished and jailed, especially in Puritan New England .

<p class="p1"><span>Many argue that cheating is a natural occurrence because, historically, humans are non-monogamous. Still, society suggests we should find one person and one person only to be committed to. “We have a romantic ideal in which we turn to one person to fulfill an endless list of needs: to be my greatest lover, my best friend, the best parent, my trusted confidant, my emotional companion, my intellectual equal,” <a href="https://www.theodysseyonline.com/the-history-of-infidelity-why-affairs-today-are-more-painful" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>Esther Perel, practising psychotherapist and relationship consultant, notes</span></a>. “[Infidelity] is the ultimate betrayal. It shatters the grand ambition of love.”</span></p>

Is infidelity natural?

Many argue that cheating is a natural occurrence because, historically, humans are non-monogamous. Still, society suggests we should find one person and one person only to be committed to. “We have a romantic ideal in which we turn to one person to fulfill an endless list of needs: to be my greatest lover, my best friend, the best parent, my trusted confidant, my emotional companion, my intellectual equal,” Esther Perel, practising psychotherapist and relationship consultant, notes . “[Infidelity] is the ultimate betrayal. It shatters the grand ambition of love.”

<p class="p1"><span>“Among individuals engaging in infidelity in one study, 56% of men and 34% of women rated their marriage as ‘happy’ or ‘very happy,’ suggesting that genetics may also play a role in philandering,” notes <a href="https://ideas.ted.com/10-facts-about-infidelity-helen-fisher/" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>Helen Fisher in a TED article</span></a>. </span></p>

Cheating isn’t a sign of unhappiness

“Among individuals engaging in infidelity in one study, 56% of men and 34% of women rated their marriage as ‘happy’ or ‘very happy,’ suggesting that genetics may also play a role in philandering,” notes Helen Fisher in a TED article .

<p>A <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/intense-emotions-and-strong-feelings/202001/do-narcissists-actually-lack-empathy">lack of empathy</a> and troubled relationships are hallmarks of a narcissist. They have trouble thinking of anyone other than themselves or believing that anyone else matters.</p>

“In general, men are more likely than women to cheat: 20% of men and 13% of women reported that they’ve had sex with someone other than their spouse while married, according to data from the recent General Social Survey (GSS),” notes the Institute for Family Studies . This trend has been the same since the 1990s. A person’s religious beliefs may also determine whether they’ll cheat on their partner.

<p class="p1"><span><a href="https://www.factinate.com/people/facts-casanova/" rel="noreferrer noopener">Giacomo Casanova’s name may be synonymous with philandering</a></span><span>, but there are countless other famous cheaters out there, including Albert Einstein, Bill Clinton, Vivien Leigh, JFK and Napoleon. </span></p>

Famous cheaters

Giacomo Casanova’s name may be synonymous with philandering , but there are countless other famous cheaters out there, including Albert Einstein, Bill Clinton, Vivien Leigh, JFK and Napoleon.

<p class="p1"><span><a href="https://ideas.ted.com/10-facts-about-infidelity-helen-fisher/" rel="noreferrer noopener">Researchers believe</a></span><span> there are three general ways a person can cheat on their partner: “sexual infidelity (sexual exchange with no romantic involvement), romantic infidelity (romantic exchanges with no sexual involvement), and sexual and romantic involvement.”</span></p>

So what constitutes cheating?

Researchers believe there are three general ways a person can cheat on their partner: “sexual infidelity (sexual exchange with no romantic involvement), romantic infidelity (romantic exchanges with no sexual involvement), and sexual and romantic involvement.”

<p class="p1"><span>While it’s totally normal for couples to go through ups and downs in their sex life, if your sessions between the sheets are frequently disappointing, your relationship probably won’t make it. A <a href="https://www.elitedaily.com/p/can-bad-sex-end-a-relationship-a-new-study-claims-it-actually-can-8936854" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>survey conducted</span></a> by OnePoll and Pure Romance found that couples frequently call it quits if they reach “4.5 bad sexual encounters.”</span></p>

Breaking down sexual cheating

Sexual infidelity, researchers believe , is anything that physically connects someone to another person who isn’t their partner, regardless of their emotional attachment to them. This could be someone they met at a party or even their work spouse. What the definition of physical is, though, is up for debate. While some people believe holding hands or kissing constitutes cheating, others argue only intercourse counts as infidelity.

<p class="p1"><span>There’s more of a grey area about what constitutes romantic cheating than physical because it relates to the hidden emotions of a person. <a href="https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/love-and-sex-in-the-digital-age/201610/cheating-it-was-just-webcam" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>Some believe</span></a> that being a romantic philanderer involves everything from fantasizing about another person to actually starting up a relationship with them. <a href="https://www.cosmopolitan.com/sex-love/a10290329/reasons-emotional-cheating-is-worse/" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>Some even argue this kind of cheating is worse than sexual cheating</span></a>. </span></p>

Breaking down romantic cheating

There’s more of a grey area about what constitutes romantic cheating than physical because it relates to the hidden emotions of a person. Some believe that being a romantic philanderer involves everything from fantasizing about another person to actually starting up a relationship with them. Some even argue this kind of cheating is worse than sexual cheating .

<p class="p1"><span>This kind of cheating would be considered infidelity if a person or their “hook-up” is in a relationship. That’s widely believed to be the case even if the parties were “<a href="https://friends.fandom.com/wiki/We_Were_On_A_Break" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>on a break</span></a>.” The only exception to that rule is...</span></p>

What about hook-up culture?

This kind of cheating would be considered infidelity if a person or their “hook-up” is in a relationship. That’s widely believed to be the case even if the parties were “ on a break .” The only exception to that rule is...

<p class="p1"><span>These kinds of relationships allow involved partners to <a href="https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-an-open-relationship-4177930" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>physically and emotionally connect with other people</span></a>. In this case, philandering is rarely an issue (though it’s possible if all parties have not agreed to the terms of what constitutes cheating). </span></p>

The matter of open relationships

These kinds of relationships allow involved partners to physically and emotionally connect with other people . In this case, philandering is rarely an issue (though it’s possible if all parties have not agreed to the terms of what constitutes cheating).

<p class="p1"><span>As how we date and mate has evolved over the years, from heteronormative marriages to swiping right on dating apps, so too has our idea of what constitutes cheating. Now more than ever, the concept of stepping out on a partner is more vague and the very definition varies. So what exactly is infidelity and how do some of the increasingly diverse dating labels fit into the discussion? Read on to find out. </span></p>

Isn’t polyamory cheating?

Some polyamorous relationships allow openness while others don’t, so being polyamorous doesn’t mean you’re a philanderer. As Franklin Veaux and Eve Rickert, the authors of polyamory guide More Than Two: A Practical Guide to Ethical Polyamory , tell Vice , “a polyamorous relationship does not mean anything goes. It means far more listening, discussing, and self-analyzing than you may be used to.”

<p class="p1"><span>If someone and their partner agree that flirting by text constitutes cheating, it is. What do most people think? “A recent survey commissioned by law firm Slater and Gordon found that 35 percent of the 2,150 participants believed sending explicit or flirty messages didn't mean you were unfaithful, while only 62 percent of people said they would feel guilty about sending explicit photos to someone other than their partner,” notes <a href="https://www.vice.com/en_ca/article/5gq9yn/does-sexting-count-as-cheating" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span><em>Vice</em></span></a>. </span></p>

Does flirting by text count?

If someone and their partner agree that flirting by text constitutes cheating, it is. What do most people think? “A recent survey commissioned by law firm Slater and Gordon found that 35 percent of the 2,150 participants believed sending explicit or flirty messages didn't mean you were unfaithful, while only 62 percent of people said they would feel guilty about sending explicit photos to someone other than their partner,” notes Vice .

<p class="p1"><span>Terri Orbuch, author of <em>Finding Love Again: 6 Simple Steps to a New and Happy Relationship</em>, tells <a href="https://www.womenshealthmag.com/relationships/a26986841/is-flirting-cheating/" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span><em>Women’s Health</em></span></a>: “Flirting is when you intentionally want to attract the attention of someone, or when you signal an interest in interacting more with someone. These actions don't necessarily mean you want to have sex or become emotionally close to that person.” But many say it is a “slippery slope.” It depends on what a person and their partner have agreed to. </span></p>

Does flirting mean you’ve cheated?

Terri Orbuch, author of Finding Love Again: 6 Simple Steps to a New and Happy Relationship , tells Women’s Health : “Flirting is when you intentionally want to attract the attention of someone, or when you signal an interest in interacting more with someone. These actions don't necessarily mean you want to have sex or become emotionally close to that person.” But many say it is a “slippery slope.” It depends on what a person and their partner have agreed to.

<p>Finding it hard to nod off at night? While there may be a variety of reasons for your sleep problems, one cause could be an overactive thyroid, according to the <a href="https://www.sleepfoundation.org/articles/your-thyroid-blame-your-sleep-issues">Sleep Foundation</a>. Your sleep can be disrupted by all manner of issues, including light, your diet, and temperature. However, if you struggle to sleep each night, get it checked out.</p>

What happens if you were drunk?

Being drunk doesn’t get someone out of doing something that constitutes infidelity if they know their partner wouldn’t have approved of the action. Alcohol may cloud thinking, but it’s no excuse .

<p class="p1"><span>If someone thinks they’ve been cheated on, the first step is to avoid jumping to conclusions. Laura Miolla, a professional divorce coach based in Boston, tells <a href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-to-do-after-being-cheated-on_n_56df2e3ee4b0ffe6f8eb281c" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span><em>The Huffington Post</em></span></a>: “Your relationship is now compromised and tainted by betrayal and deceit… It’s easy to wonder ‘what did I do wrong?’ but their infidelity is not a reflection of you. It was your partner’s choice.”</span></p>

So you think you’ve been cheated on...

If someone thinks they’ve been cheated on, the first step is to avoid jumping to conclusions. Laura Miolla, a professional divorce coach based in Boston, tells The Huffington Post : “Your relationship is now compromised and tainted by betrayal and deceit… It’s easy to wonder ‘what did I do wrong?’ but their infidelity is not a reflection of you. It was your partner’s choice.”

<p class="p1"><span>The <a href="https://lifehacker.com/what-to-do-when-you-find-out-you-ve-been-cheated-on-1734659354" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>next step</span></a> after discovering infidelity is to ask the cheating party for some honest details about what happened (the context, when, etc.). Spare the gory details, though. </span></p>

How to talk to your partner

The next step after discovering infidelity is to ask the cheating party for some honest details about what happened (the context, when, etc.). Spare the gory details, though.

<p>You may think your only option at the end of a marriage is divorce, but that’s not necessarily true. In many cases, a trial separation will work instead. This will <a href="https://www.mediate.com/articles/dermanGregson1.cfm" rel="noreferrer noopener">give you enough time to answer questions</a> like “Do I still have feelings for my partner?” or “What do I hope divorce will achieve?”</p>

What should you do next?

From there, the party who’s been cheated on needs to spend some time evaluating how they feel about the infidelity and what they need to overcome the incident/issue. No one will handle infidelity in the same way, and that’s OK . Therapy could help .

<p>Compassion should be the middle name of every Piscean; they have a strong emotional intelligence that sets them apart from many other zodiac signs and most colleagues. Though reserved and somewhat quiet, they are capable of doing things that blow others away, says <a href="https://www.astrologyzone.com/learn-astrology/the-signs/pisces/">astrologer Susan Miller</a>, and are incredibly intuitive. They are exceptional in roles that are people-oriented.</p><p>Ideal careers: healthcare, doctor, physiotherapist, psychologist, the arts, music, photography, charity work</p>

Can you overcome cheating?

It is possible, notes Helen Zielinski Landon, a psychologist based in Santa Monica, California, to The Huffington Post , but it will take a lot of work and therapy. “Forgiving doesn’t mean forgetting. There will be work to be done, but it’s possible to find renewed strength in the relationship with new honesty, an appreciation for what could have been lost and a new commitment to improving your bond.”

<p class="p1"><span>In a <a href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10508-017-1018-1" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span>recent study</span></a>, researchers found that the more we lie, the more comfortable we become as liars. “The results found that those who had been unfaithful in previous relationships were three times more likely to cheat on their current partner than those who did not report any previous indiscretions,” <a href="https://www.theloop.ca/study-proves-cheater-always-cheater-theory-remarkably-accurate/" rel="noreferrer noopener"><span><em>The Loop</em></span></a> notes. </span></p>

Once a cheater...

In a recent study , researchers found that the more we lie, the more comfortable we become as liars. “The results found that those who had been unfaithful in previous relationships were three times more likely to cheat on their current partner than those who did not report any previous indiscretions,” The Loop notes.

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Consumer Empowerment: The program aims to empower consumers by providing information about the quality and energy efficiency of solar panels.
Emissions Reduction : It is estimated that by 2030, the star- enabled solar panels will contribute to a reduction of approximately 30 million tonnes of CO2 emissions annually .
Voluntary Initially : The program will be voluntary for the first two years .
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Directive 2009-09: Plants with novel traits regulated under Part V of the Seeds Regulations: Guidelines for determining when to notify the CFIA

This page is part of the guidance document repository (gdr)..

Looking for related documents? Search for related documents in the Guidance Document Repository

Updated May 3, 2023

1.1 legal authority, 1.2 privacy, 1.3 purpose, 2. plants with novel traits, 3. proponent responsibilities for determining if a plant is a pnt, 4.1 environmental safety of plants developed using conventional and gene editing breeding techniques, 4.2.1 new crop species and new uses are outside the scope of this guidance, 4.2.2 plants with a new commercially-viable herbicide tolerance trait (but no inclusion of foreign dna) always require authorization, 4.2.3 plants containing foreign dna always require authorization, 4.3 release of plants that are not pnts, 4.4 assistance in making a novelty determination, 4.5 summary, appendix 1 – glossary of terms, appendix 2 – environmental safety criteria, appendix 3 – list of conventional methods of plant breeding, 1. introduction.

"Seed" is defined in the Seeds Act as "any part of any species belonging to the plant kingdom, represented, sold, or used to grow a plant." Part V of the Seeds Regulations , "Release of Seed", sets out the regulatory requirements for both the confined and unconfined environmental release of seed. Seed that is not substantially equivalent to seed of that species that is already present in Canada, in terms of its specific use and safety for the environment and human health, is subject to Part V. Seed that is subject to Part V must be authorized before release into the environment.

This guidance document does not change the Seeds Regulations . Rather, this guidance explains how Part V of the Seed Regulations is applied.

Any information provided to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) is subject to the Access to Information Act and the Privacy Act and will be protected in accordance with these acts. Information submitted to the CFIA may be made available to the public in accordance with these acts.

Part V of the Seeds Regulations provides a mechanism to verify that the release of new plants does not have a significant negative impact on the Canadian environment, including human health through environmental exposure. This guidance provides information to assist proponents in determining whether a plant is considered to be a plant with novel traits (PNT) that is subject to Part V.

This guidance is supported by the rationale provided in the Rationale for updated guidance determining whether a plant is subject to Part V of the Seeds Regulations . Please refer to the glossary of terms in appendix 1 to familiarize yourself with the terms used in this guidance.

While the Seeds Regulations Part V encompasses all plants, including agricultural crops, trees, and plants released for non-agricultural uses, this guidance is focused on the environmental release of crop plants commonly used in agricultural systems (for example, field crops and horticultural crops). For plants with other intended uses (for example, forest trees, aquatic plants, new crop species and the release of plants into natural environments), proponents should contact the Plant Biosafety Office (PBO) at [email protected] for additional guidance.

Plants with novel traits require an authorization prior to release into the environment. The process for receiving an authorization is outside of the scope of this guidance. For information about the submission, assessment, and decision process for PNTs, refer to:

Directive 94-08: Assessment criteria for determining environmental safety of plants with novel traits
Directive Dir 2000-07: Conducting confined research field trials of plants with novel traits in Canada
D-96-13: Import requirements for plants with novel traits, including transgenic plants and their viable plant parts

This guidance does not address the determination of whether or not a plant is a novel livestock feed or a novel food. Information on determining whether a plant is considered a novel feed or a novel food is available in the following documents:

CFIA's Guidelines for the Assessment of Novel Feeds: Plant Sources
Health Canada's Guidelines for the Safety Assessment of Novel Foods

Plants with novel traits (PNTs) are plants into which 1 or more traits have been intentionally introduced, regardless of method, where:

the trait is new to cultivated populations of the species in Canada, and
the plant has a potential to have a significant negative environmental effect

If a plant meets only 1 of these criteria, it will not trigger regulation as a PNT under Part V of the Seeds Regulations . This guidance provides information on how to determine whether a plant meets this definition.

Part V of the Seeds Regulations , "Release of Seed", sets out the regulatory requirements for the environmental release of seed in Canada. Part V does not make distinctions between the various technologies that may be used in the development of a plant. This is a logical and product-based approach that places emphasis on the traits of the plant (that is, its observable or measureable characteristics), and its interactions with the environment when determining whether a plant is subject to Part V.

The CFIA continues to take a product-based approach to the oversight of PNTs intended for environmental release. To determine whether a PNT poses a risk to the environment and/or human health, the CFIA considers 5 environmental safety criteria:

weediness potential
impacts of gene flow to related plants
plant pest potential
impacts on non-target organisms
impacts on biodiversity

For a description of how these criteria are applied, see Appendix 2 – Environmental safety criteria .

It is the continued responsibility of the proponent to consider how an introduced trait or traits could impact the 5 environmental safety criteria and ultimately to determine whether their plant is a PNT. For all PNTs, it is the proponent's responsibility to notify the PBO and receive an authorization for release. Proponents must also notify the PBO if new information becomes available that would change their original determination of whether that plant is a PNT.

If there is reason to question a proponents' determination, the PBO may require a proponent to provide scientific justification for this determination, and ultimately satisfy the CFIA that their plant is not subject to regulation under Part V of the Seeds Regulations . The proponent may submit an appeal to the CFIA Complaints and Appeals Office if they believe that an incorrect conclusion has been reached.

4. Determining whether a plant is a PNT

Based on breeding outcomes reviewed since the environmental release programs were launched in the late 1980s, and based on a history of safe use of plant breeding domestically and internationally, the CFIA foresees that almost all plants derived through conventional breeding will result in plants that are substantially equivalent to other plants of that species in Canada, with respect to their safety for the environment and human health. An exception is conventionally-bred plants with a newly developed or introduced commercially-viable herbicide tolerance trait (see section 4.2.2).

Based on this context, the CFIA does not foresee an outcome of conventional breeding where an authorization for environmental release would be required, other than in the case of herbicide tolerant plants.

It is the scientific opinion of the CFIA that gene editing technologies do not present any unique or specifically identifiable environmental or human health safety concerns as compared to other technologies of plant development. For this reason, gene-edited plants are regulated using a product-based approach, like any other product of plant breeding. Namely, it is the traits that a plant exhibits and whether these traits would have a significant negative impact on environmental safety that are used to determine whether a plant would be subject to Part V of the Seeds Regulations .

4.2 When to notify the CFIA prior to environmental release

The context described above outlines the CFIA's experiences and expectations using a product-based approach, including a proponent's ongoing responsibility to request and receive an authorization from the CFIA prior to environmental release of any PNT, or if new information about novelty and/or safety becomes available. Prior to any release into the environment (for example, field trials, seed production, commercial cultivation), the following guidelines apply:

As the scope of this guidance is focused on crops commonly cultivated in Canada, proponents are advised to contact the CFIA for additional guidance about other scenarios and uses if they intend to:

release or domesticate a new crop species
release plants into natural environments, or
develop traits in species that may have unique management considerations (for example, forest trees or aquatic plants)

These plants always require an authorization from the CFIA. The CFIA offers a streamlined process for herbicide tolerant plants that do not contain foreign DNA. Proponents must submit the following to the CFIA:

summary information about the trait, including intended use
a description of how the trait functions at a biochemical level (for example, the mutation, gene and/or protein impacted and interactions with the herbicide), and
the herbicide tolerance management plan

The CFIA will review the herbicide tolerance management plan within 60 days to verify that it is suitable to address any negative impacts on the environment. If the plant is authorized for release, the authorization would include conditions that the herbicide tolerance management plan is implemented. The CFIA will also post a summary rationale of the decision.

Regardless of the technique used to develop a plant, all plants that contain foreign DNA require an authorization from the CFIA prior to release. For gene-edited plants, the DNA that encodes gene editing machinery (for example, Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)-associated (Cas) protein(s) and associated guide ribonucleic acids (gRNAs)) is considered foreign DNA if not removed through rounds of breeding and selection. If a gene-edited plant intended for environmental release still contains the DNA encoding this machinery within its genome, that plant requires an authorization.

If a plant is not a PNT, then the plant is not subject to Part V of the Seed Regulations and therefore there is no requirement to notify the CFIA and receive an authorization prior to environmental release. The plant can be released in Canada, subject to any other applicable requirements (for example, authorizations for food and feed use, or variety registration).

Even when a plant is not a PNT, the Government of Canada expects that proponents will fully participate in available mechanisms that support transparency. Regardless of breeding method, transparency around the technologies used to develop a plant line enables producers and consumers to benefit from the technologies and production systems that best meet their needs. These mechanisms can include:

best-practices for introducing new plant lines to the marketplace, as established by industry and commodity associations
government-led databases of non-novel products, such as the Health Canada Transparency Initiative , and
industry-led seed databases and catalogues, such as the Canadian Variety Transparency Database

While proponents are responsible for determining if a plant is a PNT, they may request a novelty determination from the CFIA at any stage of planning or development. The CFIA is available to provide advice on a case-by-case basis. Furthermore, the CFIA recommends that proponents contact the PBO in cases where there is limited historical knowledge and experience regarding the environmental safety of an intended new use and/or new crop species, or if there is a reasonable expectation that a new plant would negatively impact the environment.

The CFIA will review information provided by the proponent and respond with written advice regarding novelty determination. To uphold transparency and consistency, and for the benefit of all parties who may develop similar plants in the future, the PBO will also work with proponents to publish summaries of CFIA's novelty determination advice in a manner that protects privacy. For more information, contact the PBO at [email protected] .

In summary, the CFIA considers a plant to always be a PNT if it expresses a commercially-viable herbicide tolerance trait, and/or if it includes foreign DNA. Outside of these categories, the CFIA does not foresee significant negative impacts on the 5 environmental safety criteria for crop plants that are already grown in Canada, and does not expect to receive requests to authorize such plants. However, it remains the proponent's responsibility to notify the CFIA if the plant could have significant negative environmental impacts and be considered a PNT. Proponents are also expected to fully participate in mechanisms that provide transparency about non-novel products. The CFIA is available to provide advice to proponents regarding novelty determination.

The CFIA is committed to continuously improving guidance to reflect emerging trends and technologies. Up-to-date guidance and program design enables CFIA to uphold our mandate of minimizing and managing risks to Canada's plant resource base, in support of the current and future prosperity of the Canadian agricultural sector. This guidance will be updated as needed in the future to adapt to new information, to meet the needs of regulated parties for clear guidance, to account for familiarity with products in the marketplace, and to align with the programs delivered by other Canadian regulators.

A species that has not been previously grown as a crop in Canada. Examples include:

the cultivation of a species previously found only in natural habitats
the cultivation of a domesticated plant species that has not been previously cultivated as a crop in Canada

This appendix provides additional details on how the environmental safety criteria are applied. These details are provided to explain how the CFIA considers whether a plant may have the capacity to have a significant negative impact on the environment. As outlined in section 3 – Proponent responsibility for determining if a plant is a PNT , it is the proponent's responsibility to consider the environmental safety criteria that are set out in Part V and explained below. If the proponent determines that the plant is a PNT based on their evaluation of these criteria, it is their regulatory obligation to notify the CFIA.

When the CFIA assesses the capacity of a plant to negatively impact the environment, the CFIA compares the plant to its counterpart(s) already present in the Canadian environment. As outlined in Part V of the Seeds Regulations , this environmental safety assessment is based on the following 5 criteria, with examples of considerations for each:

the likelihood and persistence of herbicide-tolerant volunteers
the likelihood that continued application of the same herbicide in subsequent rotations may increase selection pressure for herbicide-tolerant weeds
the capacity of the trait to enhance weedy characteristics in the plant (for example, increase seed production, change in germination rate, change in seed dormancy, etc.)
the likelihood that hybrid offspring are viable and can become established
the likelihood that the hybrid offspring may have negative impacts on any of the other environmental safety criteria (that is, be more weedy or more invasive, alter plant pest potential, have impacts on non-target organisms, have impacts on biodiversity)
the capacity of the trait to affect other pathways in the plant, including those involved in plant defence against pests
the capacity of the trait to result in the creation or enhancement of a reservoir for a plant pest
the capacity for the gene product (for example RNA, protein) that confers the trait of interest to act as a toxin or allergen, and adversely impact non-target species, including humans as workers or bystanders
a reduction in local plant biodiversity that adversely impacts other species in the food web
persistence or spread of the plant outside its current cultivation areas that adversely impacts biodiversity in a natural, unmanaged environment
field-evolved pest/weed resistance to the trait, that would have downstream pest/weed management consequences and related biodiversity impacts
consequences of the release of the biomolecules into the environment (air, soil, water) during cultivation

These 5 criteria serve as a framework that allows safety assessors to consider the potential for significant negative impacts posed by a plant to the Canadian environment. This is accomplished through consideration of:

elaborated in species-specific biology documents published on the CFIA's website
phenotypic characteristic(s) conferred to the plant by specific genetic changes
the geographic distribution or cultivation area of the plant and related species in Canada
interactions among the 3 considerations above

The characteristics of the plant will dictate the applicability of the 5 environmental safety criteria. For example, the potential for and consequences of gene flow will only apply to plants with sexually compatible relatives in Canada. Thus, the consequences of gene flow need not be considered for species such as corn and soybean, which do not have relatives in Canada.

This is a non-exhaustive list of methods which were, at the minimum, researched as potential tools for plant breeding. The majority of these methods have been adopted by proponents and are used in current breeding programs. Detailed descriptions and examples of the listed techniques can be found in van de Wiel et al., 2010. Traditional plant breeding methods. Wageningen UR Plant Breeding, Wageningen. Report 338.

Techniques for overcoming reproductive barriers

Bridge cross
Pollination through use of sub- or supra-optimal stigma age, or suboptimal conditions
Chemical-facilitated pollination
Pollination using pollen mixture treatments
Pollination through treatment and/or manipulation of the style
In vitro pollination
In vitro culture of excised ovaries
In vitro culture of excised ovules
In vitro culture of excised embryos (embryo rescue)
In vitro fertilization

Techniques for chromosome and genome manipulation

Haploidization
Genome doubling, polyploidization
Production of alien addition or substitution lines
Chromosome translocation breeding
Manipulation of chromosome pairing in meiosis
Mutagenesis (via chemical mutagens or ionizing radiation)
Cell fusion (that is, somatic hybridization)
Partial genome transfer

Other plant breeding techniques

Interspecific grafting
Hybrid variety production
In vitro tissue culture
Sex expression in monoecious or dioecious species
Marker-assisted breeding (MAB)
Targeting Induced Local Lesions IN Genomes (TILLING)
Cell sorting

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Directive 2009-09: Plants with novel traits regulated under Part V of
Directive 2009-09: Plants with novel traits regulated under Part V of the Seeds Regulations: Guidelines for determining when to notify the CFIA

Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature

Conclusions

Literature search strategy

Epidemiology of sex and travel

Commercial sex work and travel

The LGBTQ+ community and travel sex behaviour

The effects of alcohol and drugs on sex tourism

Sexual assault and violence in travellers

Child sex tourism

The effects of wealth and mobility on sex tourism

Impact of sex tourism on host communities

Future considerations in sex tourism

Limitations of current review

Availability of data and materials

Acknowledgements

Author information

Contributions

Corresponding author

Ethics declarations

Consent for publication

Additional information

Rights and permissions

About this article

Share this article

Tropical Diseases, Travel Medicine and Vaccines

Sun, sea and sex: a review of the sex tourism literature

Andrea Holmes

Chris Noone

Gerard Thomas Flaherty

Associated Data

Conclusions

Literature search strategy

Epidemiology of sex and travel

Commercial sex work and travel

Sexually transmitted infections

The LGBTQ+ community and travel sex behaviour

The effects of alcohol and drugs on sex tourism

Sexual assault and violence in travellers

Child sex tourism

The effects of wealth and mobility on sex tourism

Impact of sex tourism on host communities

Future considerations in sex tourism

Limitations of current review

Acknowledgements

Authors’ contributions

Availability of data and materials

Consent for publication

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